India-Brazil Critical Minerals MoU

Why in News?

India and Brazil signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) on rare earths and critical minerals during Brazil President’s visit to India with an aim to strengthen supply chains and competitiveness.

What is Rare Earths and Critical Minerals?

What is India doing about critical minerals?

• Capacity building – India is currently trying to build capacity at home across the critical minerals value chain and to reduce dependence on any one country by building more overseas partnerships for minerals and processing.
• National Critical Mineral Mission – It was launched in January 2025, running from 2024-25 to 2030-31.
• It covers the entire value chain - exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recovery from end-of-life products.
• Policy and Legal Framework
• India published a list of 30 critical minerals in July 2023
• It has used the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act 2023 to give the Centre more power to auction blocks for critical and strategic minerals.
• By September 2025, the Ministry of Mines had conducted multiple rounds of auctions covering several blocks.
• Overseas Partnerships – The state-backed vehicle Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. is currently exploring overseas acquisitions and signing exploration arrangements, including in Argentina and Chile.
• Customs Duty Reforms – India has used changes in customs duty to reduce the cost of importing inputs that it doesn’t have enough of at home.
• This includes customs duty cuts in recent budgets for some critical minerals and for scrap and waste that can be processed to recover these minerals.
• Manufacturing Push – The Indian government is pushing late-stage manufacturing to reduce import dependence.
• India’s aim to begin domestic production of rare-earth permanent magnets by the end of 2026 under a government-backed programme, with the goal of cutting import dependence in sectors like electric vehicles and defence.

Does the MoU intersect with Pax Silica?

• Pax Silica – It is a U.S.-led initiative that brings together partner countries; India joined it on February 20.
• It’s meant to make the “silicon stack” — the system that starts with raw materials and runs through factories and equipment, all the way to modern computing, including data centres and AI hardware — more secure.
• General goal – Pax Silica sets out a general goal in the form of securing supply chains for the U.S. and its partner countries.
• Bilateral MoU with Brazil – This  bilateral MoU could help India to access and process certain minerals.
• Not a Pax Silica Member – This MoU doesn’t make Brazil a Pax Silica member, however, nor will activities under the MoU be run as part of Pax Silica projects.

What does the MoU mean for India?

• Brazil’s Mineral Reserves – The President of Brazil highlighted Brazil’s large reserves, of which only about 30% have been explored.
• Non-binding MoU – Brazil has shown interest in partnering with India for exploration and processing of its mineral reserves, though the MoU signed remains non-binding.
• Strengthening India’s Bargaining Power – The agreement will increase India’s bargaining power.
• With more supply options, India is less dependent on just one or two sources.
• So, the sellers can no longer impose excessive terms, since India can point to Brazil as an alternative.
• Investor Confidence – The MoU signals to companies that their inputs won’t be disrupted by export controls or geopolitical shocks, encouraging them to invest more.
• Standards & Market Access – If India and Brazil are able to harmonise their environmental and other regulatory standards, India can more easily sell finished products into markets that increasingly demand proof about where materials were sourced from.

What will the MoU do for Brazil?

• Brazil’s Mineral Wealth – According to the U.S. Geological Survey, Brazil has 21 million tonnes of rare-earth-oxide equivalent, 2.7 billion tonnes of bauxite, 270 million tonnes of manganese, and 0.4 million tonnes of lithium.
• This MoU could offer Brazil a way to turn this mineral wealth into more value for its industry.
• Attracting Investment and Buyers – This agreement can help Brazil attract Indian capital and buyers into Brazilian projects, which can make new mines and processing plants easier to finance.
• It also gives Brazil a large, growing market that can sign long-term purchase contracts so that projects are not built on speculation.
• Comprehensive Scope of the MoU – The MoU covers exploration, mining, processing, recycling, and refining, all of which also suit Brazil’s goal to move up the value chain rather than just explore raw ores.
• Strengthening Brazil’s Position – By partnering with India, Brazil gains stronger negotiating leverage in global markets, it signals Brazil’s intent to be a value-added player in the minerals sector, not just a raw material supplier.

Reference

The Hindu | India-Brazil critical minerals MoU

Israel–Iran–United States Conflict – Historical Background and Recent Issues

Why in News?

Recently, USA and Israel are engaged in war against Iran and it is important to know the historical background and recent issues.

What is the historical background?

• Pre-1979: Limited Cooperation – Before 1979, Iran under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi maintained relatively cordial ties with Israel.
• Despite not formally recognizing Israel in strong diplomatic terms, Iran engaged in economic and security cooperation.
• Both countries shared concerns regarding Arab nationalism and Soviet influence in the region.
• Iran also maintained close strategic relations with the United States, which viewed the Shah as a key ally in its Cold War containment strategy.
• Thus, prior to 1979, the triangular relationship was not adversarial but strategically aligned.
• The 1979 Watershed Moment – The turning point came with the Iranian Revolution, which replaced the pro-Western monarchy with an Islamic Republic led by clerical leadership.
• The new regime adopted a strong anti-Israel and anti-U.S. ideological stance, portraying Israel as illegitimate and the United States as an imperial power interfering in regional sovereignty.
• The subsequent U.S. Embassy hostage crisis (1979–81) severely damaged Iran–U.S. relations. Diplomatic ties were severed, and mutual mistrust became institutionalized.
• Iran’s new foreign policy emphasized resistance against Western influence and support for anti-Israel movements.
• Emergence of proxy conflict (1980s–2010s)
• Iran’s “axis of resistance” – Over the decades, Iran developed strategic partnerships with non-state actors to expand its regional influence.
• Key among these were:
  • Hezbollah in Lebanon
  • Hamas in Gaza
  • Various Shia militias in Iraq and Syria
• Through financial, military, and logistical support, Iran cultivated what it termed the “Axis of Resistance.”
• These groups opposed Israeli policies and resisted U.S. military presence in the region.
• For Israel, Hezbollah’s missile arsenal in Lebanon and Hamas’s operations in Gaza constituted direct security threats. For the United States, attacks by Iran-linked militias on U.S. bases in Iraq and Syria deepened hostilities.
• Israel’s security doctrine – Israel has long adhered to a doctrine of pre-emption and deterrence, particularly regarding existential threats.
• It has conducted covert and overt operations targeting Iranian assets in Syria and allegedly inside Iran to prevent advanced weapon transfers and nuclear development.
• The shadow war included cyber operations, targeted assassinations of nuclear scientists, and airstrikes on Iranian military infrastructure in Syria.
• The nuclear question
• Iran’s nuclear program – Iran insists its nuclear program is for peaceful energy purposes.
• However, enrichment activities and reduced transparency raised international concerns about possible weaponization.
• Israel considers a nuclear-armed Iran an existential threat. The United States also views Iran’s nuclear ambitions as destabilizing to regional security.
• The JCPOA (2015) – In 2015, Iran and world powers signed the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA). The agreement restricted Iran’s uranium enrichment levels in exchange for sanctions relief.
• However, in 2018, the United States under President Donald Trump withdrew from the deal, calling it inadequate. Sanctions were reimposed under a “maximum pressure” campaign. In response, Iran gradually increased uranium enrichment beyond JCPOA limits.
• The collapse of the deal significantly heightened tensions among the three actors.
• Escalation in the 2020s
• From proxy to direct confrontation – The October 2023 conflict between Israel and Hamas marked another turning point.
• Israel accused Iran of backing militant operations.
• While Iran denied direct involvement, regional hostilities intensified.
• By 2024 and 2025, the long-running shadow conflict transitioned into direct exchanges.
• Missile and drone attacks were launched between Iranian and Israeli territories, marking an unprecedented escalation.
• Open military engagement (2025–26) – In mid-2025, Israel reportedly carried out extensive airstrikes on Iranian nuclear and military facilities.
• Iran retaliated with missile barrages targeting Israeli cities.
• The United States entered the confrontation more directly, conducting strikes against Iranian strategic sites, citing intelligence assessments of nuclear weapon proximity.
• In early 2026, joint Israeli-U.S. operations reportedly targeted high-value Iranian leadership and infrastructure.
• Among those reportedly killed was Iran’s Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, marking a historic escalation.
• Iran responded with drone and missile attacks on Israeli urban centers and U.S. bases in the Gulf region.
• Maritime tensions also increased, especially around the strategically crucial Strait of Hormuz, through which a significant portion of global oil supplies transit.

What are the core drivers of conflict?

• Ideological conflict – Iran’s Islamic revolutionary ideology rejects Israel’s legitimacy and challenges U.S. regional dominance. Conversely, Israel frames Iran’s rhetoric and support for armed groups as existential threats.
• Security dilemma – Each actor perceives its military actions as defensive, while rivals interpret them as aggressive.
• This classic security dilemma has fueled an arms race involving missile systems, drones, and cyber capabilities.
• Regional power competition – Iran seeks strategic depth through influence in Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen.
• Israel and the U.S. aim to prevent Iranian regional hegemony.
• Nuclear proliferation concerns – A nuclear-armed Iran could trigger proliferation in West Asia, with countries like Saudi Arabia potentially pursuing similar capabilities.
• Thus, the nuclear question has global implications.

What are the global and regional implications?

• Energy security – Instability in the Strait of Hormuz affects global oil prices and energy markets.
• Great power politics – China and Russia have adopted diplomatic positions favoring de-escalation while expanding ties with Iran.
• International law – Questions arise regarding pre-emptive strikes, sovereignty, and proportionality under international humanitarian law.
• Humanitarian concerns – Civilian casualties and displacement have increased with urban missile exchanges.

What can be done for long-term regional stability?

• Revival or renegotiation of a nuclear agreement with stronger verification mechanisms.
• Regional security dialogue involving Gulf States.
• De-escalation channels between military establishments.
• Multilateral mediation under the United Nations framework.

What lies ahead?

• The Israel–Iran–United States conflict has evolved from ideological hostility and proxy warfare into direct interstate confrontation.
• Its roots lie in the 1979 transformation of Iran’s political system, compounded by nuclear disputes and regional power struggles.
• The current phase marks one of the most dangerous moments in West Asian geopolitics, with implications for global energy security, non-proliferation regimes, and international stability.
• For UPSC aspirants, the issue exemplifies how ideology, geopolitics, security dilemmas, and international institutions intersect in shaping modern conflicts.
• Understanding its historical depth and structural drivers is essential for analyzing contemporary international relations and India’s strategic interests in the region.

Reference

The Times of India| Israel-Us and Iran War

India-Brazil Critical Minerals MoU

Why in News?

India and Brazil signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) on rare earths and critical minerals during Brazil President’s visit to India with an aim to strengthen supply chains and competitiveness.

What is Rare Earths and Critical Minerals?

What is India doing about critical minerals?

• Capacity building – India is currently trying to build capacity at home across the critical minerals value chain and to reduce dependence on any one country by building more overseas partnerships for minerals and processing.
• National Critical Mineral Mission – It was launched in January 2025, running from 2024-25 to 2030-31.
• It covers the entire value chain - exploration, mining, beneficiation, processing, and recovery from end-of-life products.
• Policy and Legal Framework
• India published a list of 30 critical minerals in July 2023
• It has used the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Act 2023 to give the Centre more power to auction blocks for critical and strategic minerals.
• By September 2025, the Ministry of Mines had conducted multiple rounds of auctions covering several blocks.
• Overseas Partnerships – The state-backed vehicle Khanij Bidesh India Ltd. is currently exploring overseas acquisitions and signing exploration arrangements, including in Argentina and Chile.
• Customs Duty Reforms – India has used changes in customs duty to reduce the cost of importing inputs that it doesn’t have enough of at home.
• This includes customs duty cuts in recent budgets for some critical minerals and for scrap and waste that can be processed to recover these minerals.
• Manufacturing Push – The Indian government is pushing late-stage manufacturing to reduce import dependence.
• India’s aim to begin domestic production of rare-earth permanent magnets by the end of 2026 under a government-backed programme, with the goal of cutting import dependence in sectors like electric vehicles and defence.

Does the MoU intersect with Pax Silica?

• Pax Silica – It is a U.S.-led initiative that brings together partner countries; India joined it on February 20.
• It’s meant to make the “silicon stack” — the system that starts with raw materials and runs through factories and equipment, all the way to modern computing, including data centres and AI hardware — more secure.
• General goal – Pax Silica sets out a general goal in the form of securing supply chains for the U.S. and its partner countries.
• Bilateral MoU with Brazil – This  bilateral MoU could help India to access and process certain minerals.
• Not a Pax Silica Member – This MoU doesn’t make Brazil a Pax Silica member, however, nor will activities under the MoU be run as part of Pax Silica projects.

What does the MoU mean for India?

• Brazil’s Mineral Reserves – The President of Brazil highlighted Brazil’s large reserves, of which only about 30% have been explored.
• Non-binding MoU – Brazil has shown interest in partnering with India for exploration and processing of its mineral reserves, though the MoU signed remains non-binding.
• Strengthening India’s Bargaining Power – The agreement will increase India’s bargaining power.
• With more supply options, India is less dependent on just one or two sources.
• So, the sellers can no longer impose excessive terms, since India can point to Brazil as an alternative.
• Investor Confidence – The MoU signals to companies that their inputs won’t be disrupted by export controls or geopolitical shocks, encouraging them to invest more.
• Standards & Market Access – If India and Brazil are able to harmonise their environmental and other regulatory standards, India can more easily sell finished products into markets that increasingly demand proof about where materials were sourced from.

What will the MoU do for Brazil?

• Brazil’s Mineral Wealth – According to the U.S. Geological Survey, Brazil has 21 million tonnes of rare-earth-oxide equivalent, 2.7 billion tonnes of bauxite, 270 million tonnes of manganese, and 0.4 million tonnes of lithium.
• This MoU could offer Brazil a way to turn this mineral wealth into more value for its industry.
• Attracting Investment and Buyers – This agreement can help Brazil attract Indian capital and buyers into Brazilian projects, which can make new mines and processing plants easier to finance.
• It also gives Brazil a large, growing market that can sign long-term purchase contracts so that projects are not built on speculation.
• Comprehensive Scope of the MoU – The MoU covers exploration, mining, processing, recycling, and refining, all of which also suit Brazil’s goal to move up the value chain rather than just explore raw ores.
• Strengthening Brazil’s Position – By partnering with India, Brazil gains stronger negotiating leverage in global markets, it signals Brazil’s intent to be a value-added player in the minerals sector, not just a raw material supplier.

Reference

The Hindu | India-Brazil critical minerals MoU

Shaheedi Samagam & Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Ji

Why in News?

Recently, the Prime Minister paid tribute to ‘Hind di Chadar’ Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Sahib Ji on the 350^th Martyrdom anniversary.

• Shaheedi Samagam - It typically refers to a religious gathering or congregation held to commemorate the martyrdom (Shaheedi) of Sikh Gurus or prominent Sikh martyrs.
• 350^th Shaheedi Samagam of Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Ji - The event, titled "Hind-di-Chadar," honored the 9^th Guru's sacrifice for religious freedom.
• It is observed every year on November 24, major samagams are organized at Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib and the Red Fort in Delhi to honor his sacrifice in 1675.
• Shaheedi Sabha (Fatehgarh Sahib) - Held annually in late December, this is one of the largest samagams.
• It commemorates the martyrdom of the Chotte Sahibzade (the younger sons of Guru Gobind Singh Ji), Baba Zorawar Singh and Baba Fateh Singh, who were bricked alive at Sirhind.
• Operation Blue Star Anniversary (June) - Samagams are held annually at the Akal Takht within the Golden Temple complex to remember those who died during the 1984 military action.
• Purpose - Spiritual Discourse - Features Kirtan (devotional singing), Katha (religious discourse), and Dhadi Vaars (heroic ballads).
• Community Service - Includes Langar (free community kitchen) and medical camps.
• Preserving History - Aims to educate the younger generation about the "Safar-e-Shahadat" (journey of martyrdom) and the principles of standing against oppression.
• Recent National-level celebrations – 400^th Prakash Purab of Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Ji (commemorative stamp & coin).
• 550^th Prakash Purab of Guru Nanak Dev Ji.
• Annual observance of Veer Bal Diwas in honour of Sahibzadas.

References

1. PIB | 350th Shaheedi Samagam of Sri Guru Teg Bahadur Ji
2. PIB | PM’s remarks during the 350th Shaheedi Samagam

GI tag & Tamil Nadu Sarees

Why in News?

Recently, the cultural and economic significance of Tamil Nadu’s GI-tagged sarees has gained renewed attention.

• Geographical Indication (GI) tag – It is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities, reputation, or characteristics attributable to that origin.
• Categories - Covers agricultural products (e.g., Darjeeling tea), handicrafts (e.g., Banarasi sarees), food items, and industrial products.
• GI tagged products can be natural or man-made.
• It serves as an intellectual property right, ensuring only authorized users can use the name, protecting against imitation.

The first product in India to be accorded the GI tag was Darjeeling Tea in the year 2004-05.

• Legal Protection - In India, these are registered and protected under the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999.
• Validity – A GI tag is valid for 10 years, after which it must be renewed.
• Ownership – Any trader's body, association, or organization can apply for a GI tag.
• Penalty for GI infringement – Imprisonment for a term of 6 months to 2 years and a fine of Rs 50,000 to 2 lakhs.
• Global Recognition - It is defined under Articles 23 and 24 of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement of the World Trade Organisation (WTO).
  • India signed the TRIPS Agreement in 1994, becoming a member on January 1, 1995, and formally committed to its standards.

As of now, Uttar Pradesh (77) has the highest number of GI tags products, followed by Tamil Nadu (74), and Karnataka (around 45).

GI Tagged Sarees in Tamil Nadu

References

1. TimesNow | GI Tagged Saree of Tamil Nadu
2. Intellectual Property India | Government of India

Nilgiris Wood Pigeon

Why in News?

A recent study titled warns that climate change could drastically restrict Nilgiris Wood Pigeon suitable habitat in the Western Ghats by the end of the century.

• Scientific Name – Columba elphinstonii.
• Family – Columbidae.
• Habitat – Moist evergreen, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests of the Western Ghats.
• Especially high-elevation “shola” forests, mainly 900–2,250 m and wooded ravines.
• Distribution – Endemic resident of the Western Ghats.
• Scarce and patchily distributed at mid- and high elevations.
• Range – Recorded across hill ranges including the Nilgiris, Anamalai, Biligirirangan hills and adjoining landscapes.
• Key Identification
  • Head – Bluish-grey head, darker neck and chest.
  • Pattern – Clear black-and-white patch on the back of the neck (most distinctive feature).
  • Body Colour – Dark grey to slate-grey; upper back shows a maroon/chestnut shine.
  • Male vs Female – Male has a lighter grey crown (head), and the female looks duller and browner.
• Behaviour – It is a non-migratory species that shows local/nomadic movements linked to food availability and climate.
• Breeding - Breeds mainly from March to July in natural forests.
• Diet – Primarily feeds on fruits, seeds, flowers, leaf buds and some ground invertebrates.
• Conservation Status
  • IUCN – Least Concern (LC).
• Threats – Climate change (projected habitat contraction and upslope shifts), forest loss, degradation and fragmentation.

References

1. TH | Nilgiri Wood Pigeon
2. IUCN | Nilgiri Wood Pigeon

Cassava Brown Streak Disease

Why in News?

A recent study warns more than a third of Africa is at risk of cassava deadly virus spread.

• It is a devastating viral disease affecting cassava in East and Southern Africa, causing up to 100% loss of edible root yield due to vascular necrosis.

Cassava, one of Africa’s most important staple crops, valued for its tolerance to drought and poor soils.

• Caused by - Cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) and Ugandan cassava brown streak virus (UCBSV).
• The disease causes necrosis in the roots of infected plants, often leading to total crop loss.
• Because the damage is sometimes only visible at harvest, farmers may not realise the scale of infection until it is too late.
• Symptoms - Leaf chlorosis and brown, rotting streaks in roots.
• Spreading – It is primarily spread by whitefly Bemisia tabaci, a pest that exists as a complex of genetically distinct groups.
• Particular whitefly populations in sub-Saharan Africa, known as Sub-Saharan Africa 1 and 2, are highly efficient at transmitting the virus.
• They are present in huge population densities, particularly in East and Central Africa, driven by climate change and agricultural intensification.
• Farming practices also contribute to the spread.
• Many smallholder farmers reuse cuttings from previous harvests as planting material, which can perpetuate infection if crops are already contaminated.
• Adding to the problem, many high-yield cassava varieties developed to resist Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD) were historically vulnerable to CBSD.
• Management - Resistant Varieties - Planting CBSD-resistant or tolerant, high-yielding, clean planting materials.
• Control Measures - Rogueing (removing) infected plants and controlling whitefly populations with systemic insecticides or pruning.

Despite being in East Africa, Ethiopia remains one of the few countries in the region where CBSD has not been reported.

Reference

Down to Earth | Cassava virus

World’s Smallest QR Code

Why in News?

Recently, researchers from TU Wien and start-up Cerabyte created the world’s smallest QR code, earning a Guinness World Records title

• QR code – A quick response (QR) code is a type of barcode that can be scanned by a digital device and stores information as a series of pixels in a square-shaped grid.
• Types of QR Codes – Micro QR Code – Smaller than normal QR codes; used where space is limited (e.g., small products).
• Smallest size – 11 × 11 modules that store up to 21 characters.
• Model 1 QR Code – Early version (prototype) of QR codes.Stores up to 1,167 numbers.
• Model 2 QR Code – Improved and most commonly used version today.
• Has better alignment and higher data capacity.
• Can store up to 7,089 numbers (Version 40).
• iQR Code – Can be square or rectangular.
• Useful when shape or space is a constraint.
• SQRC (Secure QR Code) – Has a restricted access feature.
• Used for storing private or confidential information.
• Frame QR Code – Comes with a customizable frame.
• Can include images, logos, or illustrations along with data.
• Uses – In various applications, from supply chain management to digital payments to cryptocurrency wallet addresses.

World’s Smallest QR Code

• Size – Around 2 square micrometres (smaller than a bacterium).
  • Nearly one-third the size of the previous record holder.
• Objective – To tackle “Data Rot” as the present storage devices (hard drives, magnetic tapes) last only 10–30 years.
• Require continuous power, cooling, and data transfer to new systems.
• Risk of long-term digital data loss.
• Features – Grid size – 29 × 29 pixels.
• Each pixel – 49 nanometres, which is smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
• Material used – 15 nm chromium nitride (ceramic coating).
• Technique – Focused Ion Beam (FIB) milling (atom-level carving).
• Verification – Using a Scanning Electron Microscope.
• Ceramic-Based Data Storage – Highly durable, heat-resistant, corrosion-resistant, and chemically inert.
• One A4-sized ceramic sheet can store over 2 TB of data.
• Information density – 130 bits per square micrometre.
• Data is etched physically; hence no power is needed for preservation and can potentially last for millennia.

Reference

TH | World’s Smallest QR Code