India’s Indian Ocean Region (IOR) Vision

Why in News?

India’s strategic outlook in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is evolving into a multidimensional framework that combines maritime security, regional connectivity, economic cooperation, and emerging technology governance.

What is India’s maritime security and island diplomacy?

• Regional strategy – India’s engagement with island nations in the Indian Ocean has become a crucial element of its regional strategy.
• Engagement with Seychelles – Seychelles and India emphasised cooperation in maritime security, climate solutions, the blue economy, and sustainable development.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi highlighted that defence and maritime cooperation remain central pillars of India–Seychelles relations.

Seychelles, an archipelago of 115 islands in the Western Indian Ocean, holds strategic importance due to its proximity to vital shipping lanes.

• Nearly 80 % of India’s oil imports pass through the Indian Ocean, making the security of sea lanes of communication essential for India’s economic and energy security.
• In this context, island diplomacy plays a significant role.

Island diplomacy refers to a country’s strategic engagement with small island states through defence cooperation, economic assistance, climate support, and infrastructure development. India has supported Seychelles by providing patrol vessels, defence training, and capacity-building initiatives.

• Other areas of collaboration – Cooperation between the two countries also includes Maritime Domain Awareness (MDA), coastal surveillance radar systems, and joint maritime security efforts.
• These initiatives strengthen the ability of small island states to monitor their waters, combat piracy, and prevent illegal fishing.
• India positions – India places itself as a net security provider in the region through initiatives aligned with the MAHASAGAR vision.
• This initiative builds upon the earlier SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) doctrine announced in 2015.
• Such engagement also helps India maintain its influence in the IOR amid increasing involvement of extra-regional actors and China’s growing presence.

What is India’s act east policy and the Malaysia connection?

• Malaysia – It is a key partner for India in the ASEAN and Indo-Pacific regions and is strategically located near the Strait of Malacca, one of the world’s most important maritime chokepoints.
• India and Malaysia – They elevated their relations to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (CSP) in August 2024.
• Such partnerships involve cooperation across multiple sectors including defence, trade, technology, education, and institutionalised high-level dialogues.
  • Seychelles represents India’s strategic engagement in the Western Indian Ocean.
  • Malaysia reflects its expanding outreach towards Southeast Asia under the Act East Policy
• PM visit – Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Malaysia from February 7–8, 2026 further strengthened bilateral ties.
• One of the major outcomes of the visit was the consolidation of security cooperation aimed at promoting a rules-based maritime order in the Indo-Pacific and ensuring freedom of navigation.

India’s Act East Policy, launched in 2014 as an evolution of the Look East Policy of 1992, seeks deeper economic, political, and strategic integration with ASEAN countries.

• In this context, India and Malaysia are expanding cooperation in defence exchanges, digital economy initiatives, trade facilitation, and semiconductor manufacturing.
• Other collaborations – Particularly significant is collaboration in semiconductors and digital infrastructure, which indicates India’s attempt to integrate into ASEAN’s manufacturing and supply-chain networks.
• Supply-chain diversification has become a major strategic concern after disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
• By strengthening ties with Malaysia, India also aims to attract Malaysian investments and position itself as a major investment destination.

What is the technology diplomacy and global digital governance of India?

• India’s position – Alongside maritime and economic engagement, India is increasingly positioning itself as a leader in global digital governance and emerging technologies.
• Critical technologies – Artificial Intelligence (AI) is reshaping governance systems, military capabilities, and global economic structures.
• The AI Impact Summit held in New Delhi from February 16–20, 2026 demonstrated India’s growing role as a convening power in global AI governance discussions.
• General Concerns – AI ethics, data sovereignty, algorithmic accountability, and regulatory frameworks are becoming central to international politics.
• India’s experience with digital public infrastructure, including platforms such as Aadhaar, Unified Payments Interface (UPI), and digital service delivery systems, has drawn global attention.
• These initiatives provide a scalable and affordable model for developing countries seeking technological advancement without excessive dependence on external actors.
• By promoting inclusive AI and digital governance, India seeks to present itself as a bridge between advanced economies and developing countries.
• This approach strengthens India’s position as a representative voice of the Global South in debates surrounding technology governance.

What is India’s multidimensional strategy in the Indian Ocean region?

• Comprehensive strategy – India’s engagement in the Indian Ocean Region is no longer confined to traditional maritime security.
• Instead, it reflects a comprehensive strategy that integrates defence cooperation, economic connectivity, technological partnerships, and digital governance.
• Island diplomacy with Seychelles – This strengthens India’s maritime presence in the Western Indian Ocean.
• Other regional engagements – Deeper engagement with Malaysia and ASEAN reinforces India’s strategic position in Southeast Asia and the Indo-Pacific.
• Global level – leadership in digital governance and AI regulation enhances India’s diplomatic influence.

What lies ahead?

• India’s evolving approach to the Indian Ocean Region demonstrates a coherent vision that combines security, connectivity, and technological leadership.
• Through maritime cooperation with island nations, strategic partnerships with Southeast Asian countries, and proactive engagement in global digital governance, India is strengthening its regional influence while also positioning itself as a leading voice of the Global South in shaping the emerging international order.

Reference

The Indian Express| IOR vision of India

Parliamentary privilege & Privilege Committees

Why in News?

Nearly two years after the constitution of the 18th Lok Sabha, Speaker Om Birla nominated 15 members to the Committee of Privileges, will be chaired by BJP leader Ravi Shankar Prasad.

What is Parliamentary Privilege?

• Parliamentary privilege – It refers to rights and immunities enjoyed by Parliament as an institution and MPs in their individual capacity, without which they cannot discharge their functions as entrusted upon them by the Constitution.
• Definition – According to the Constitution, the powers, privileges and immunities of Parliament and MP's are to be defined by Parliament.
• Codification – No specific law has yet been enacted by Parliament to codify these privileges.
• Reliance on Conventions – In the absence of any such law, it continues to be governed by British Parliamentary conventions.

What are the Constitutional provisions related to Privileges?

• Provisions – According to the Constitution of India,
  • Articles 105 and 122 outline the privileges of Parliament, while
  • Articles 194 and 212 pertain to the privileges of state governments.
• Article 105 – There shall be freedom of speech in Parliament. No member of Parliament shall be liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in Parliament or any committee thereof.
• Article 122 – The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be called in question in court on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.
• Article 194 & Article 212 – These are corresponding articles for state legislature.

What are the collective and individual Privileges?

Collective Privileges

• Definition – Rights or immunities enjoyed by a group/institution as a whole, not reducible to the sum of individual rights.
• Purpose – To safeguards the autonomy, identity, and effective functioning of a collective body (e.g., Parliament, community, or association).
• Right to Publish Reports & Proceedings – The House can publish debates, reports, and proceedings, and prevent others from doing so.
• Freedom of the Press (with Limits) – The press may publish truthful reports of Parliamentary proceedings without prior authorization, but this does not apply to secret sessions.
• Right to Hold Secret Sessions – The House can exclude strangers and conduct confidential meetings on vital issues.
• Power to Frame Rules of Procedure – It can make rules to regulate its own business and adjudicate matters related to its functioning.
• Right to Notification of Arrest/Detention – The House must be informed immediately of a member’s arrest, custody, conviction, imprisonment, or release.
• Power to Initiate Inquiries & Summon – The House can conduct inquiries and summon individuals to appear before it.
• Judicial Immunity of Proceedings – The Courts are barred from investigating or questioning the proceedings of the House or its committees.
• Immunity from arrest & legal process within House – No member or outsider can be arrested & no civil/criminal process can be served within the House boundaries without the Presiding Officer’s consent.

Individual Privileges

• Definition – The rights or immunities granted to a person in their individual capacity.
• Purpose – It ensures individuals can perform their roles or live freely without undue restriction or interference.
• Freedom from Arrest in Civil Cases – During the session of legislature, from 40 days before the beginning to 40 days after its conclusion, members cannot be arrested.
• This privilege applies only in civil matters; does not apply to criminal cases or preventive detention.
• Freedom of Speech in Parliament – Members have the right to free expression in Parliament and its committees; they are not accountable in any court for anything said or voted there.
• This freedom is limited by constitutional provisions, rules, and standing orders.
• Immunity from Court Proceedings – No member can be prosecuted or questioned in a court for speeches, debates, or votes in Parliament.
• Right to Decline Testimony in Court – Members may refuse to give evidence or testify in court while the House is in session.

What is Breach of Privilege?

• Breach of privilege – It is a violation of any of the privileges of MPs/Parliament.
• Among other things, any action 'casting reflections' on MPs, parliament or its committees; could be considered breach of privilege.
• This may include publishing of news items, editorials or statements made in newspaper/magazine/TV interviews or in public speeches.

What is a Privileges Committee?

• Privileges Committee – It is a Parliamentary Committee present in both the Houses of the Parliament, is one of the Standing Committees to Inquire.
• Functions – The functions of the Committee of Privileges are semi-judicial in nature.
• It examines all questions involving breach of privileges of the House & its members and immunities enjoyed by MPs, recommends appropriate action.
• Composition – The Lok Sabha committee has 15 members, while the Rajya Sabha committee has 10 members.
• Head – It is headed by a member nominated by the Speaker of the LS.
• In case of RS, it is the Deputy Chairperson heads the committee.
• Raise the question – A member of the House may, with the consent of the Presiding officer of the respective house, raise a question involving a breach of privilege either of a member or of the Council or of a Committee thereof.
• Conditions of admissibility – The right to raise a question of privilege shall be governed by the following conditions -
  • The question shall be restricted to a specific matter of recent occurrence
  • The matter requires the intervention of the Council.

What are the actions the privileges committee can take?

• Mandate of the Committee – To examine cases of alleged breach of privilege and makes recommendations as it may deem fit.
• Powers of Examination – It can call the relevant people as part of its examination and look at related documents.
• Reporting – It examines cases where breaches of privilege are alleged:
  • If referred by the House, report presented to the House by the Chairman or another member.
  • If referred by the Speaker under Rule 227, report presented to the Speaker, who may pass final orders or direct it to be laid before the House.
• Reporting Procedure – The Committee must prepare a report, if no time is fixed by the House, the report must be presented within one month of the reference.
• Consideration of the Report – A motion is moved in the House to consider the report and amendments can be suggested.
• The House may agree, disagree, or agree with modifications to the Committee’s recommendations.
• Nature of Action Taken – Most notices of breach of privilege are rejected,  & penal action is recommended only in rare and serious cases.

What is the punishment in case of breach of privilege or contempt of the House?

• Attendance of the Offender – The House can ensure the attendance of the offending person.
• Range of Punishments – The person can be given a warning and let go or be sent to prison as the case may be.
• Example – In the case of throwing leaflets and chappal, the offending individuals were sentenced to simple imprisonment.
• Case Examples
• Indira Gandhi Case, 1978 – She was expelled from the LS after a resolution of breach of privilege was moved by Home Minister Charan Singh, based on Justice Shah Commission’s findings on Emergency excesses.
• Ambassador Ronen Sen, in 2007 – The allegation for the use of the phrase “headless chicken” against MPs.
• The committee found the phrase was not directed at MPs or politicians. No action was taken against him.
• Urdu Weekly Editor, in 2008 – The allegation referred the Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha a “coward” and attributed motives to his decision.
• The Committee held the editor guilty, no punishment recommended; instead, the Committee stated the House should maintain its dignity by ignoring such articles meant for cheap publicity.

 References

1. Indian Express | Ravi Shankar Prasad to head Lok Sabha’s Privileges Committee
2. The Hindu | Ravi Shankar Prasad to head Lok Sabha’s Privileges Committee
3. PRS | Parliamentary privileges

Parliamentary privilege & Privilege Committees

Why in News?

Nearly two years after the constitution of the 18th Lok Sabha, Speaker Om Birla nominated 15 members to the Committee of Privileges, will be chaired by BJP leader Ravi Shankar Prasad.

What is Parliamentary Privilege?

• Parliamentary privilege – It refers to rights and immunities enjoyed by Parliament as an institution and MPs in their individual capacity, without which they cannot discharge their functions as entrusted upon them by the Constitution.
• Definition – According to the Constitution, the powers, privileges and immunities of Parliament and MP's are to be defined by Parliament.
• Codification – No specific law has yet been enacted by Parliament to codify these privileges.
• Reliance on Conventions – In the absence of any such law, it continues to be governed by British Parliamentary conventions.

What are the Constitutional provisions related to Privileges?

• Provisions – According to the Constitution of India,
  • Articles 105 and 122 outline the privileges of Parliament, while
  • Articles 194 and 212 pertain to the privileges of state governments.
• Article 105 – There shall be freedom of speech in Parliament. No member of Parliament shall be liable to any proceedings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him in Parliament or any committee thereof.
• Article 122 – The validity of any proceedings in Parliament shall not be called in question in court on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure.
• Article 194 & Article 212 – These are corresponding articles for state legislature.

What are the collective and individual Privileges?

Collective Privileges

• Definition – Rights or immunities enjoyed by a group/institution as a whole, not reducible to the sum of individual rights.
• Purpose – To safeguards the autonomy, identity, and effective functioning of a collective body (e.g., Parliament, community, or association).
• Right to Publish Reports & Proceedings – The House can publish debates, reports, and proceedings, and prevent others from doing so.
• Freedom of the Press (with Limits) – The press may publish truthful reports of Parliamentary proceedings without prior authorization, but this does not apply to secret sessions.
• Right to Hold Secret Sessions – The House can exclude strangers and conduct confidential meetings on vital issues.
• Power to Frame Rules of Procedure – It can make rules to regulate its own business and adjudicate matters related to its functioning.
• Right to Notification of Arrest/Detention – The House must be informed immediately of a member’s arrest, custody, conviction, imprisonment, or release.
• Power to Initiate Inquiries & Summon – The House can conduct inquiries and summon individuals to appear before it.
• Judicial Immunity of Proceedings – The Courts are barred from investigating or questioning the proceedings of the House or its committees.
• Immunity from arrest & legal process within House – No member or outsider can be arrested & no civil/criminal process can be served within the House boundaries without the Presiding Officer’s consent.

Individual Privileges

• Definition – The rights or immunities granted to a person in their individual capacity.
• Purpose – It ensures individuals can perform their roles or live freely without undue restriction or interference.
• Freedom from Arrest in Civil Cases – During the session of legislature, from 40 days before the beginning to 40 days after its conclusion, members cannot be arrested.
• This privilege applies only in civil matters; does not apply to criminal cases or preventive detention.
• Freedom of Speech in Parliament – Members have the right to free expression in Parliament and its committees; they are not accountable in any court for anything said or voted there.
• This freedom is limited by constitutional provisions, rules, and standing orders.
• Immunity from Court Proceedings – No member can be prosecuted or questioned in a court for speeches, debates, or votes in Parliament.
• Right to Decline Testimony in Court – Members may refuse to give evidence or testify in court while the House is in session.

What is Breach of Privilege?

• Breach of privilege – It is a violation of any of the privileges of MPs/Parliament.
• Among other things, any action 'casting reflections' on MPs, parliament or its committees; could be considered breach of privilege.
• This may include publishing of news items, editorials or statements made in newspaper/magazine/TV interviews or in public speeches.

What is a Privileges Committee?

• Privileges Committee – It is a Parliamentary Committee present in both the Houses of the Parliament, is one of the Standing Committees to Inquire.
• Functions – The functions of the Committee of Privileges are semi-judicial in nature.
• It examines all questions involving breach of privileges of the House & its members and immunities enjoyed by MPs, recommends appropriate action.
• Composition – The Lok Sabha committee has 15 members, while the Rajya Sabha committee has 10 members.
• Head – It is headed by a member nominated by the Speaker of the LS.
• In case of RS, it is the Deputy Chairperson heads the committee.
• Raise the question – A member of the House may, with the consent of the Presiding officer of the respective house, raise a question involving a breach of privilege either of a member or of the Council or of a Committee thereof.
• Conditions of admissibility – The right to raise a question of privilege shall be governed by the following conditions -
  • The question shall be restricted to a specific matter of recent occurrence
  • The matter requires the intervention of the Council.

What are the actions the privileges committee can take?

• Mandate of the Committee – To examine cases of alleged breach of privilege and makes recommendations as it may deem fit.
• Powers of Examination – It can call the relevant people as part of its examination and look at related documents.
• Reporting – It examines cases where breaches of privilege are alleged:
  • If referred by the House, report presented to the House by the Chairman or another member.
  • If referred by the Speaker under Rule 227, report presented to the Speaker, who may pass final orders or direct it to be laid before the House.
• Reporting Procedure – The Committee must prepare a report, if no time is fixed by the House, the report must be presented within one month of the reference.
• Consideration of the Report – A motion is moved in the House to consider the report and amendments can be suggested.
• The House may agree, disagree, or agree with modifications to the Committee’s recommendations.
• Nature of Action Taken – Most notices of breach of privilege are rejected,  & penal action is recommended only in rare and serious cases.

What is the punishment in case of breach of privilege or contempt of the House?

• Attendance of the Offender – The House can ensure the attendance of the offending person.
• Range of Punishments – The person can be given a warning and let go or be sent to prison as the case may be.
• Example – In the case of throwing leaflets and chappal, the offending individuals were sentenced to simple imprisonment.
• Case Examples
• Indira Gandhi Case, 1978 – She was expelled from the LS after a resolution of breach of privilege was moved by Home Minister Charan Singh, based on Justice Shah Commission’s findings on Emergency excesses.
• Ambassador Ronen Sen, in 2007 – The allegation for the use of the phrase “headless chicken” against MPs.
• The committee found the phrase was not directed at MPs or politicians. No action was taken against him.
• Urdu Weekly Editor, in 2008 – The allegation referred the Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha a “coward” and attributed motives to his decision.
• The Committee held the editor guilty, no punishment recommended; instead, the Committee stated the House should maintain its dignity by ignoring such articles meant for cheap publicity.

 References

1. Indian Express | Ravi Shankar Prasad to head Lok Sabha’s Privileges Committee
2. The Hindu | Ravi Shankar Prasad to head Lok Sabha’s Privileges Committee
3. PRS | Parliamentary privileges

Moonshot project on brain co-processors

Why in News?

Recently, the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) launched a moonshot project on brain co-processors.

• Brain Co-processors – These are an emerging neurotechnology designed to enhance or restore the brain’s natural functions.
• They combine neuromorphic hardware and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to interpret and influence brain activity.
• These devices interact directly with neural signals to assist in real-life cognitive and motor functions.
• Objectives of the Moonshot Project - To develop advanced brain co-processors that can decode, process, and re-encode brain signals.
• The project aims to create both:
  • Implantable devices (placed inside the body)
  • Non-invasive devices (external systems)
• Working - The system follows a closed-loop process:
  • Decode brain activity from neural recordings.
  • Process the signals using AI algorithms.
  • Re-encode signals back into the brain through neural stimulation or neurofeedback.

• Stroke Rehabilitation - The technology is aimed at cognitive and motor rehabilitation of stroke survivors.
• It helps restore critical motor functions, such as:
  • Goal-directed reach
  • Grasp movements
  • Smooth and coordinated limb control.
• AI-Powered Closed-Loop Device - The project plans to develop an AI-powered closed-loop brain interface.
• This device will connect with different regions of the brain to restore coordinated movement and neural control.
• Indigenous Technology Development in India - The initiative aims to indigenise key technologies, including
  • Brain implants
  • Neuromorphic hardware
  • AI software stacks
• Designed to function within India’s clinical infrastructure, especially in low-resource healthcare settings.
• Creation of National Brain Data Infrastructure - Development of India-specific neural databases, including:
  • Stereo EEG (sEEG) recordings
  • Electrocorticography (ECoG) data
  • These datasets will support AI training and neurological research.
• Digital Public Goods - The project will create open-source digital resources, such as AI models, Neural datasets and Visualization tools.
• These will be shared as digital public goods to support global neuroscience research.
• Significance - Addresses a major medical challenge—stroke rehabilitation
• Strengthens India’s capacity in brain-computer interface technologies and neuro-AI research.
• Supports the development of affordable medical technologies for large populations.

Reference

The Hindu | Moonshot project on brain co-processors

Holi – The Festival of Colours

Why in News?

Recently, Holi, the festival of colours, was celebrated across India and globally.

• Observed in – Holi celebrated on the Purnima (full moon) of the Hindu month of Phalguna (February–March).
• Belief – The festival represents or symbolizes the victory of good over evil, love, forgiveness, unity, and new beginnings.
• Marks the seasonal transition from winter to spring and the beginning of a new harvest cycle.
• Origin – The legend of Prahlad and Holika, which forms the basis of the Holika Dahan ritual during Holi, is found in the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana.
• Mythology – Demon king Hiranyakashipu, empowered by a boon from Brahma, demanded worship from all. But his son Prahlad continued to worship Vishnu despite threats.
• Hiranyakashipu asked his sister Holika, who was immune to fire, to kill Prahlad.
• Holika’s fire immunity failed and burnt her as it was used for evil, saving Prahlad, symbolising the triumph of good over evil.
• Holi also celebrates the divine love of Krishna and Radha, especially in cities of Mathura–Vrindavan, which are associated with Krishna's birth and childhood.
• History – One of the oldest festivals in India.
• Mentioned in ancient texts such as
  • Jaimini’s Purva Mimamsa Sutras,
  • Kathaka-Grhya-Sutras,
  • Narada Purana,
  • Bhavishya Purana and
  • Dasakumara Charita.
• Also referenced in the 7^th-century Sanskrit drama Ratnavali.
• Rituals – Holika Dahan – Bonfire lit on the eve of Holi symbolising the destruction of evil and negativity.
• Rangwali Holi – Smearing gulal (fine coloured powder), throwing coloured water, music, dance and celebrations.
• Regional Variations –
  • Lathmar Holi – Barsana and Nandgaon (Uttar Pradesh).
  • Dol Jatra/Dol Purnima – West Bengal and Odisha.
  • Shigmo – Goa.

References

1. BCC | Holi
2. India Today | Holi 2026

Election Commission–State Election Commissioners Conference

Why in News?

Recently, the Election Commission of India convened a national roundtable conference with State Election Commissioners at Bharat Mandapam after a 27-year gap (last held in 1999).

• Aim – To foster synergy between the Election Commission of India and State Election Commissions in electoral processes and logistics within the legal framework.
• Objectives – Provide a platform for the exchange of ideas on electoral management.
• Strengthen cooperative federalism in election administration.
• Key Highlights, 2026 – Focus Areas –
  • Technology Sharing.
  • Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and electoral rolls.
  • Strengthening electoral processes and operational coordination.
• Technology – ECINET digital platform aimed at streamlining electoral services.

ECINET (Election Commission Integrated Network) is a unified digital platform developed by the Election Commission of India to provide all electoral services on a single interface.

• Presentations highlighting robustness, transparency, and safeguards of EVMs.
• Participants – Chaired by - Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar.
• Attended by - State Election Commissioners, Chief Electoral Officers, and legal and technical experts from all States and Union Territories.

Part XV of the Indian Constitution, titled "Elections," covers the legal framework for elections in India through Articles 324 to 329.

State Election Commissioners (SECs)

• SECs are independent, constitutional authorities distinct from the Election Commission of India (ECI) which manages state/central polls.
• They ensure electoral integrity for local governance.
• Appointment - Appointed by the Governor.
• Term - Typically serve a 5-year term or until age 65.
• Role - Responsible for the "superintendence, direction, and control" of voter list preparation and conduct of elections for urban and rural local bodies.
• Independence - Cannot be removed from office except in a manner similar to a High Court judge.
• Authority - SECs use voter lists prepared by the ECI for local body elections but are responsible for the delimitation of local constituencies.
• Coordination - ECI organizes conferences to align with SECs on electoral logistics and technology.

Reference

IE | Election Commission–State Election Commissioners Conference

Strategic Geographic Area of Pakistan and Afghanistan

Why in News?

Recently, tensions between Pakistan and Afghanistan escalated into armed clashes along the disputed Durand Line, with both sides carrying out cross-border strikes and military operations.

The Durand Line

• It is the international land border that stretches for about 2,600 km between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
• Intended to establish "spheres of influence" rather than a permanent international border.
• It is an agreement between the British (Sir Henry Mortimer Durand) and Abdur Rahman Khan, the then-emir of Afghanistan.
• Established in – 1893.
• Stretches – From the border with Iran in the west to China’s border in the east, spanning through the Karakoram range to the Registan desert.

• It cuts directly through the Pashtun tribal heartlands, making it a long-standing source of tension between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Important Border Crossings

• They are critical trade and transit points between the two countries, particularly for goods moving between South Asia and Central Asia.
• Torkham Border Crossing – It is a major border connecting Nangarhar province of Afghanistan with Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province.
• Operational Status – As of early 2026, the border frequently faces closures due to cross-border skirmishes and security tensions.

• Ghulam Khan Crossing – It connects North Waziristan (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan) to Khost province, Afghanistan.
• Chaman – Spin Boldak Crossing – It connects Chaman town in Chaman District, Balochistan (Pakistan) to Wesh and Spin Boldak in Kandahar Province (Afghanistan). 
  • Part of – A key route linking the provincial capitals Quetta (Pakistan) to Kandahar (Afghanistan).

Important Regional Provinces

• Kandahar (Afghanistan) – The historical and political power base of the Taliban.
• Paktia (Afghanistan) – Known for its rugged, mountainous terrain and deep-seated tribal autonomy.
• It has historically served as a staging ground for cross-border resistance movements.
• Nangarhar (Afghanistan) – It is the eastern gateway of Afghanistan to Pakistan.
• Khost (Afghanistan) – Khost is a southeastern Afghan province bordering Pakistan’s North Waziristan and surrounded by mountainous terrain.
• The Khost–Waziristan region has long been a centre of militant activity and cross-border insurgency networks.

Reference

TH | Strategic Geographic Area of Pakistan and Afghanistan

Environmental Contaminants in Mother’s Milk

Why in News?

Recent studies in parts of rural India have detected traces of environmental contaminants, raising concerns about early-life exposure to pollutants.

• Breast Milk – It is a unique bioactive fluid produced by mammalian mothers.
• Composition – Contains all the nutrients that an infant needs in the first 6 months of life, including fat, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water

The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommend exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life, followed by continued breastfeeding alongside complementary foods up to 2 years of age or beyond.

• Importance – First food and first vaccine – Breast milk provides complete nutrition and immune protection for infants.
• Recommended by WHO as the safest nourishment for infants.
• It provides macronutrients, micronutrients, bioactive molecules and stem cells that support infant growth.
• Benefits –
  • Strengthening immune defences.
  • Supporting brain and neurodevelopment.
  • Shaping the gut microbiome.
  • Reducing inflammation and infections.
  • Lowering risk of allergies, autoimmune disorders, obesity and respiratory diseases.

Key findings of the study

• Long-term Benefits – Study found that longer breastfeeding duration is associated with
  • Higher intelligence in adulthood
  • More years of schooling
  • Higher earnings.
• Concern of Contaminants – Detection of traces of pesticides, heavy metals and uranium in breast milk in parts of rural India.  

Studies have detected at least 101 contaminants in breast milk samples across India.

• Nature – Detected substances fall into categories such as:
  • Carcinogens (cancer-causing agents)
  • Endocrine disruptors (chemicals that interfere with hormonal systems)
  • Neurotoxins (harmful to brain development)
  • Nephrotoxicity (kidney damage)
• Early-life Exposure – Indicates exposure to pollutants may begin in infancy rather than later in life.
• Infants are particularly vulnerable because their organs and immune systems are still developing and have lower body weight, increasing relative exposure.
• Uranium in Groundwater – Uranium-238 (U-238) is a naturally occurring radioactive element that can contaminate groundwater.
• 151 districts across 18 states had groundwater uranium levels above the WHO guideline of 30 µg/l.

In Bihar, about 1.7% of groundwater sources are affected. Uranium contamination has been reported to have the highest level (5.25 µg/L) recorded in the Katihar district.

States with High contamination levels –

• • Punjab – 24.2% wells above limit
  • Haryana – 19.6%
  • Telangana – 10.1% 
  • Delhi – 11.7%
  • Rajasthan – 7.2%

• Smaller proportions were found in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal and Bihar.
• Significance – Highlights the link between environmental pollution and early-life health exposure.
• Emphasises the need for groundwater quality monitoring and pollution control.

References

1. Down to Earth | Environmental Contaminants in Mother’s Milk
2. Nature | Contaminants in Mother’s Milk