Election of Rajya Sabha members

Why in News?

Upcoming elections in 10 Indian states will see state legislative assemblies electing 37 representatives to the Rajya Sabha.

• Constitutional Provisions
  • Article 80 -Rajya Sabha Members - Rajya Sabha has up to 250 members
    • Elected – 238 members.
    • Nominated – 12, for their special knowledge of literature, science, art or social service.
  • 4^th Schedule- Details the allocation of seats to each State and Union Territory based on their population.
• Electoral College - Rajya Sabha members are elected by state Assembly members.

Lok Sabha members are directly elected by citizens aged 18 and above.

• Rajya Sabha MPs representing Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu & Kashmir are elected by members of an electoral college comprising the MLAs of these Union territories.
• The Union territories of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Chandigarh, and Ladakh do not have representation in Rajya Sabha.
• Voting System - It follows the Proportional Representation system by means of a Single Transferable Vote (STV).

A form of proportional representation where voters rank candidates (1, 2, 3, etc.). A candidate needs a specific quota of votes to win.

• Eligibility - The minimum age to be a Rajya Sabha MP is 30.
• Term - The term of a Rajya Sabha member is 6 years, and 1/3 of the members retire every two years.
• This ensures continuity, as Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that is never dissolved, unlike the Lok Sabha.
• Voting process - This depends on the strength of the Assembly of the state concerned. States with high populations have more seats and states with smaller populations have fewer seats.
• A formula is used to calculate the quota required for a candidate to win.
  • Formula - Total number of MLAs in a state / (Vacant Rajya Sabha seats + 1) + 1
• The total number of MLAs voting in a state is divided by the number of seats going for elections plus 1. Then, 1 is added to the resulting number to calculate the quota.
• Open Ballot - Unlike the secret ballot used in General Elections, Rajya Sabha elections use an Open Ballot system.
• MLAs must show their marked ballot papers to their party’s authorized agent before casting them to prevent cross-voting.

Reference

The Indian Express | How votes for Rajya Sabha elections are calculated?

West Asia Conflict and its impact on Indian Industries

Why in News?

The ongoing conflict in West Asia is causing significant turbulence in global energy markets and creating supply chain bottlenecks for critical industrial raw materials essential to India's core sectors.

The West Asia region broadly includes the 6 Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries like Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the UAE along with other regional economies such as Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and Yemen.

• Recent issue - The West Asia conflict is a major, escalating war primarily driven by joint U.S.-Israel military strikes against Iran, aimed at regime change and disrupting its network of proxy forces.
• This conflict involves direct, intense fighting, including Israeli strikes on Hezbollah and Iranian targets, and retaliatory Iranian actions impacting oil infrastructure.
• The missile and drone strikes hitting several energy and logistics facilities across the Gulf, fears of supply disruptions have intensified.
• The possibility of a closure of the Strait of Hormuz one of the world’s most critical energy and trade routes has heightened concerns of a global energy supply shock.
• Report Findings - A report by the Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) warns that the West Asian conflict threatens $98.7 billion in Indian imports, extending economic risks far beyond the energy sector.
• The Energy Core - Oil & Gas
  • Crude Oil: With only one month of stockpiles, India is pivoting to discounted Russian oil to mitigate price spikes.
  • LNG: Reliance on Qatari gas threatens industrial supply stability; steel and fertilizer sectors are most at risk from prolonged disruptions.
• Strategic Mineral Dependence - Construction - India sources 68.5% of its limestone and 62.1% of its gypsum from West Asia. Delays would spike cement prices and stall infrastructure projects.
• Fertilizers - 65.8% of sulphur (used for sulphuric acid) comes from the region. While currently the "off-season," a month-long disruption would hit urea production for the next crop cycle.
• Steel - The region provides 59.1% of Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) and the natural gas required to process it. High energy volatility remains a bigger threat than raw material scarcity.
• Electronics/Power - 50.7% of copper wire imports are at risk, threatening renewable energy and power grid expansion.
• Impact on Exports – Diamonds - Surat Hub- India imports over 40% of its rough diamonds from West Asia.
• Supply breaks would paralyze the cutting and polishing industry, a major Indian export earner.

Reference

The Indian Express | The West Asia conflict is hitting core Indian industries

Iran’s Revolutionary Guards (Sepah-e-Pasdaran)

Why in News?

• The IRGC, or Sepah-e-Pasdaran, was one of the earliest revolutionary institutions decreed by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini.
• Aim - To preserve the revolution and the theocratic, constitutional system Khomeini and his followers built.
• Post-Revolutionary Origin (1979) - It is created after the 1979 revolution that brought down the monarchy of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi.
• The revolutionaries were doubtful of the loyalty of Iran’s regular Army that was commanded by royalists until the revolution.
• They wanted a fighting force that was completely loyal to the clergy. So, they went on to build one.
• Ideological Foundation- Khomeini envisioned the Guards as "soldiers of Islam," tasked specifically with preserving the theocratic, constitutional system.
• Impact of the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) – This war transformed Pasdaran into a powerful fighting force.
• The participation of ideologically driven Guards in the war, which ended in a ceasefire after both sides suffered heavy casualties, laid the ground for the IRGC to emerge as the most influential wing of the state.
• Dual-Track Military Structure - Today, the IRGC and Iran’s regular military (Artesh) operate as two parallel armed wings of the state.
• While Artesh and the police force are entrusted with protecting the country’s territorial integrity and order at home, Pasdaran’s primary responsibility is the protection of the revolutionary government.
• With a military wing, an overseas operational unit (Quds Force) and a civilian voluntary organization (Basij) at home, the IRGC’s operations overlap with the regular service forces.
• But, under the direct command of the Supreme Leader, the Guards have the resources and capability to influence the direction of the foreign and security policies of the state more than any of its other wings.
• Organizational Components and Capabilities - The IRGC is a self-contained military-industrial complex with its own:
• Ground Forces - Stationed across all 31 Iranian provinces to ensure internal stability.
• Aerospace Force - Manages Iran’s strategic missile and drone programs.
• Navy - Responsible for patrolling maritime borders, most notably the Strait of Hormuz, a global energy chokepoint connecting the Gulf to the Indian Ocean.
• Basij- A civilian volunteer paramilitary organization used for domestic surveillance and social control.
• External Influence - The Quds Force & "Axis of Resistance"
• The Quds Force (Jerusalem Force) serves as the IRGC’s elite overseas operational wing, tasked with neutralizing enemies and expanding Iranian influence through unconventional warfare and regional alliances.
• The Axis of Resistance - A network of non-state and state actors supported by the IRGC to counter Western and Israeli influence. Key members include:
• Levant - Hezbollah (Lebanon), Hamas, and Islamic Jihad (Palestine).
• Arabian Peninsula - Houthis (Yemen).
• Iraq & Syria- Various Shia mobilization brigades.

Reference

The Hindu | Iran’s Revolutionary Guards

Discovery of new moth species

Why in News?

Scientists recently discover 2 new lichen moth species namely, Caulocera hollowayi and Asura buxa in the eastern Himalayas.

• It represents a significant addition to India’s biodiversity records, particularly within the Lepidoptera group.
• Lepidoptera is the second-largest order of insects, comprising butterflies and moths.

• Ecological Importance - "Bio-indicators" - Lichen moths are of high interest to environmental scientists because of their specific life cycle.

• Dietary Niche - As caterpillars, these moths feed almost exclusively on lichens.
• Environmental Sensors - Lichens are highly sensitive to air pollution. Therefore, the health and population of these moths serve as a natural indicator of air quality and the overall health of fragile mountain ecosystems.
• Ecosystem Role - They contribute to nutrient cycling and act as a food source for other high-altitude predators.
• Taxonomic Milestone - Along with these two new species, they also recorded 7 other lichen moth species for the first time in India.
• Biodiversity Hotspot - The Eastern Himalayas (Sikkim and North Bengal) continue to be a primary focus for discovering "lesser-known" insect groups, which are vital for understanding complex ecosystem functioning.

Reference
Telangana Today | Discover of two new moth species