Trends in the North Indian Ocean’s Storm Cycle

Why in News?

The cyclonic disturbances over the North Indian Ocean, which include the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the land area in between, have changed drastically over the last century.

What is cyclonic disturbances?

• Cyclonic disturbances – These are low-pressure weather systems characterized by inward-spiraling winds.
• The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word ‘Cyclos’ meaning the coils of a snake.
• Coined by – Henry Peddington because the tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear like coiled serpents of the sea.
• 2 types – Tropical cyclones &  extra-tropical cyclones (temperate cyclones).

What is the ongoing trend in storm activity across the North Indian Ocean?

• Frequency of cyclonic disturbances has shifted – Cyclone activity rose until the 1970s, fell sharply by the 2000s, and is now climbing again but not back to earlier highs.
• Inverted U-shaped trend in the past century –
  • Between 1900 and 1920 (averaged under 10); by the 1930s (risen above 15), marking a long period of stability until the 1970s.
  • However, the 1980s and 1990s saw a sharp decline, and hit a low about 8 in the 2000s.
  • Between 2010s and 2020s, the activity rebounded and is rising again, but still below the mid‑century peak levels.
• Regional Origin Shift – The overall decline in disturbances in recent years is driven almost entirely by a sharp drop in activity within the Bay of Bengal.
  • Bay of Bengal – Once the primary hub of cyclonic disturbances, has seen a sharp decline in recent decades, driving the overall fall in activity.
  • Arabian Sea – The Arabian Sea has seen growing cyclonic activity, but its frequency remains below that of the Bay in recent years.
  • Implication – The cyclone risk is increasingly moving westward toward the Arabian Sea.
• Intensification & Severity – Fewer storms overall, but stronger ones, with the Arabian Sea becoming a growing hotspot due to faster warming.
  • A disturbance starts small (low-pressure <31 kmph), then can grow into depression (31–49), and further into a deep depression (50–61).
  • Severity – Cyclonic Storm (62–88), Severe Cyclonic Storm (89–117), Very Severe (118–166), Extremely Severe (167–221), Super Cyclonic storm (≥222).
• Since the 1970s, more Bay of Bengal storms have reached severe levels.
• Arabian Sea storms are both increasing and intensifying, creating higher risk and forecasting challenges.

Generally, warmer oceans provide more energy to tropical storms, making cyclones stronger and their paths harder to predict.

• Seasonality Shift – More cyclones now form later in the year.
  • In Bay of Bengal – The disturbances increasingly occur in October–December instead of July–September.
  • Prior to the 1980s, activity was concentrated in July-September, since then, the focus has shifted to October–November.

How do these shifts in the North Indian Ocean positively impact India?

• Reduced exposure to cyclones – With fewer total disturbances, India faces lower overall exposure to cyclones, means less disruption to agriculture, fisheries, and coastal livelihoods compared to the mid‑20th century peaks.
• Decline in Bay of Bengal activity – The Bay of Bengal, once the most cyclone‑prone region, has seen a sharp decline in disturbances.
• This reduces risk for Odisha, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh, & allows better resource allocation for disaster management along the eastern coast.
• Stronger preparedness & monitoring – Although fewer disturbances occur, those that do form are more predictable targets for monitoring.
• It pushes India to strengthen early-warning systems, disaster preparedness, and resilient infrastructure.
• Seasonal shift benefits – Storms now occur later in the year (October–December), giving monsoon crops more time to mature before cyclone strikes.
• Disaster preparedness calendars can be adjusted to focus on the post‑monsoon months, improving readiness.

How do these shifts in the North Indian Ocean negatively impact India?

• Uneven decline – The overall decline in disturbances is uneven - Arabian Sea activity is rising, exposing the western coast (Gujarat, Maharashtra, Kerala) to new risks.
• Growing vulnerability of the western coast – With rise in Arabian Sea activity, the western coast (Mumbai, Kochi, Lakshadweep) is becoming more vulnerable.
• Infrastructure and preparedness on this coast have historically been weaker, raising the potential for greater damage.
• Disproportionate Impact – Severe cyclones cause disproportionate losses—damaging lives, property, and agriculture far more than weaker storms.
• Challenges in Arabian Sea – The Arabian Sea is heating faster than average, producing stronger, less predictable cyclones, this makes forecasting and disaster planning more difficult.
• Compound Flooding Risks – The post‑monsoon cyclones coincide with the retreating monsoon, increasing the chance of compound flooding.
• Danger for Fishing Communities – Fishing communities face an extended period of risk into winter, threatening livelihoods and safety.

What lies ahead?

• Looking ahead, fewer storms are forming, yet those that do are stronger, later in season, and more hazardous.
• The shifts in frequency, intensity, geography, and timing are reshaping cyclone dynamics in the North Indian Ocean, requiring improved forecasting, coastal planning, and disaster management.

References

1. The Hindu | Fewer but stronger cyclones: Four trends
2. NDMA | Cyclones
3. Hong Kong Observatory | Tropical cyclones & Extra-tropical cyclones

U.S. Naval Moves against Venezuela

Why in News?

Recently, The United States has announced a “total and complete blockade of all sanctioned oil tankers going into and,” out of Venezuela marking a significant escalation in its pressure campaign against the Nicolás Maduro government.

What are the three merchant ships targeted by the U.S.?

• Skipper – It was seized by U.S. authorities off the coast of Venezuela.
  • The vessel was carrying nearly two million barrels of crude oil.
  • According to the U.S. government, the oil had been shipped at subsidised rates to Cuba, which has been providing economic and political support to the Maduro regime.
• Centuries – The Panamanian-flagged tanker was stopped and boarded by the U.S. Coast Guard.
  • The Venezuelan Navy escorted the ship up to the boundary of Venezuela’s Exclusive Economic Zone, after which U.S. forces intervened.
  • The vessel was transporting Venezuelan oil and had previously lost certification from major international classification societies.
• Bella 1 – The U.S. Coast Guard attempted to intercept this tanker that was en route to Venezuela to load crude oil.
  • The vessel had earlier been sanctioned by the U.S. for trading Iranian oil and was again suspected of violating U.S. sanctions related to Venezuela.
• These three ships illustrate the methods used by sanctioned states to continue oil exports despite international pressure.

What are the nature and scope of U.S. Sanctions?

• United Nations sanctions – These imposed by the United Nations are legally binding on all member states and can include military, diplomatic, or economic measures.
• U.S. sanctions – They are largely unilateral measures designed to achieve American foreign policy objectives at relatively low direct cost.
• Rather than relying on physical enforcement, which is expensive and often ineffective, the U.S. increasingly uses financial and economic leverage.
• Past experience of US sanctions – The maritime blockade of Iraq under the Oil-for-Food Programme after the First Gulf War, showed that physical blockades cost billions of dollars and failed to prevent illegal oil trading.

• Revised Strategy of US – Since the Second Gulf War, the U.S. has focused on exploiting its dominant position in the global financial system, especially through control over the U.S. dollar and international banking infrastructure

What is the role of the dollar and global finance?

• Petro dollar system – The U.S. exercises significant influence through the petrodollar system, as most global oil transactions are conducted in U.S. dollars.
• The American government has direct authority over U.S. companies and prohibits them from trading with sanctioned countries.
• Submission of other banks and agencies – Non-U.S. banks and companies also comply with U.S. sanctions to retain access to the American market and the global financial system, which is heavily centred in the United States.
• Even transactions that do not directly involve the U.S. often pass through American financial intermediaries, allowing Washington to block or monitor them.
  • For example, major international banks such as HSBC were reluctant to re-enter Iran even after the 2015 nuclear deal, due to continuing restrictions on U.S. firms.
  • In 2014, BNP Paribas paid nearly $9 billion in fines for violating U.S. sanctions.
  • Similarly, U.S. pressure on Banco Delta Asia in Macau effectively disrupted North Korea’s access to international finance.

What are the shipping-related sanctions and their mechanisms?

• Control over various factors – Shipping sanctions rely heavily on control over insurance, certification, and registration, rather than ownership of vessels.
• Dominance of west – While shipbuilding and ownership are globally dispersed, marine insurance is dominated by Western companies, particularly those based in the United Kingdom.
• Ships require insurance coverage, especially Protection and Indemnity (P&I) insurance, to enter ports and conduct trade.
• Mandatory certification – Certification by recognised classification societies, most of which belong to the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS), is also mandatory for obtaining insurance.
• When the U.S. imposes sanctions, classification societies often withdraw certification and major insurers terminate coverage.
  • For instance, Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, several Russian ships were stranded in the Bosphorus Strait after losing P&I insurance, making them unacceptable risks for transit through Turkish waters.
• In addition, some countries may revoke flag registration of sanctioned vessels to avoid U.S. retaliation.
• Ships that lose their flag or falsely claim nationality can be boarded by naval forces under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.

What are the effectiveness of U.S. sanctions in the shipping sector?

• Finding alternate route – Energy-rich states such as Iran and Russia have managed to develop alternative networks despite losing access to mainstream insurers and classification societies.
• Russia, in particular, has partially bypassed price-cap mechanisms imposed on its oil exports.
• Role of OFAC – The U.S. Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) plays a central role in enforcing sanctions by identifying and blacklisting individuals, companies, and vessels.
• In June 2024, OFAC sanctioned Bella 1 for allegedly transporting cargo linked to a Hezbollah-owned company.
• Operating with irregularities – Many vessels now operate under unclear or frequently changing ownership, flags of convenience, and lesser-known classification societies.
• This complicates enforcement and reflects deliberate attempts to evade sanctions.
• The Shadow Fleet and Emerging Counter-Networks – The cases of Skipper, Centuries, and Bella 1 exemplify what Western governments describe as the “shadow fleet” aging vessels operating without proper insurance, certification, or transparent ownership.
• Centuries, once certified by the American Bureau of Shipping, later received certification from a smaller classification society not affiliated with the IACS.
• Skipper similarly lost certification from recognised bodies and was accused by U.S. authorities of falsely flying the flag of Guyana.
• Cooperation among countries – These developments indicate increasing cooperation among sanctioned states such as Venezuela, Iran, Russia, and potentially China, aimed at weakening U.S. dominance over global finance and maritime trade.

What lies ahead?

• The decision by the United States to resort to a physical maritime blockade against Venezuelan oil exports signals the limits of financial sanctions alone.
• While U.S. control over the dollar, banking, insurance, and certification remains formidable, the persistence of shadow fleets and alternative trading networks shows that sanctioned states have achieved partial success in resisting economic isolation.
• For global governance, this raises important questions about the future effectiveness of unilateral sanctions, the fragmentation of the international economic order, and the increasing militarisation of maritime enforcement in global trade routes.

Reference

The Hindu| US Blocking Venezuelan Ships

Unclaimed Financial Assets – Your Money, Your Right

Why in News?

The Government has launched the nationwide initiative “Your Money, Your Right” to help citizens reclaim unclaimed financial assets, has already facilitated the return of nearly Rs.2,000 crore to rightful owners.

What are Unclaimed Financial Assets?

• Definition – Money with banks, insurers, mutual funds, or other financial institutions that remains unclaimed by the account holder or their legal heirs for a prolonged period.

• Assets included:
  • Bank deposits such as savings accounts, current accounts, fixed deposits and recurring deposits that have not been operated for 10 years or more
  • Insurance policy proceeds that remain unpaid beyond the due date
  • Mutual fund redemption proceeds or dividends that could not be credited due to reasons such as change in bank account, bank account closure, incomplete bank account in records etc.
  • Dividends and shares that remain unclaimed and are transferred to statutory authorities
  • Pension and retirement benefits that are not claimed within the normal course
• Reasons for Unclaimed Financial Assets – The routine life events such as migration for work, changes in contact details, closure of old bank accounts, or lack of information among family members and legal heirs.
• Volume of unclaimed financial assets –
  • Indian banks together hold around Rs.78,000 crore in unclaimed deposits.
  • Unclaimed insurance policy proceeds are estimated at nearly Rs.14,000 crore.
  • Unclaimed amounts in mutual funds are about Rs.3,000 crore.
  • Unclaimed dividends account for around Rs.9,000 crore.
• Together, these amounts underline the scale of unclaimed savings belonging to citizens that continue to remain unused, despite being securely held within the financial system.

What is “Your Money, Your Right” Initiative?

• Launch – It is a nationwide awareness & facilitation campaign, carried out as a 3‑month drive from October to December 2025, reaching every State and Union Territory.
• Coordinated by – Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance, in collaboration with key financial sector fund regulators, including:
  • Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
  • Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI)
  • Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
  • Investor Education and Protection Fund Authority (IEPFA)
  • Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA)
• Objective – To help citizens identify, access and reclaim financial assets that legally belong to them, using simple processes and transparent systems.
• The campaign is anchored in the 3A Framework — Awareness, Accessibility and Action.
• Citizen Outreach – The combined digital platforms with on‑ground engagement for wide coverage.
  • Facilitation camps – Held in 668 districts till 19 Dec 2025, were conducted through State-Level Bankers’ and Insurance Committees, in coordination with lead district banks and local administrations.
• Citizens assisted via helpdesks & digital kiosks to trace and claim assets and encouraged enrolment in financial inclusion schemes and completion of KYC/re‑KYC.
• Progress Achieved – Nearly Rs.2,000 crore was returned to rightful owners, reconnecting families with financial assets that had remained unclaimed for extended periods.

Why Unclaimed Assets Matter?

• Beyond Numbers – Unclaimed money is not just a statistic, it represents real resources that families and individuals are unable to use.
• Household Impact – For households, it may result in restricted or deferred access to funds needed for education, healthcare, livelihood support or emergencies.
• Senior Citizens’ Security – For senior citizens, it could involve pensions or insurance benefits that provide essential financial security.
• Systemic Consequences – At a broarder level, unclaimed assets weaken the connection between citizens and the formal financial system.
• Trust and Participation – When people are unable to access their rightful money, it affects trust, participation and confidence in financial institutions.
• Government Response – The “Your Money, Your Right” initiative seeks to resolve this issue by strengthening household finances while enhancing the credibility, inclusiveness of the financial system.

What are the Digital Platforms for tracing Unclaimed Assets?

• UDGAM Portal – Developed by the RBI to help citizens search for unclaimed bank deposits across participating banks in a centralized manner (multiple banks in one place).
• Bima Bharosa Portal – It enables individuals to trace unclaimed insurance policy proceeds.
• It allows policyholders, nominees and legal heirs to check whether any insurance amounts are due to them by providing links to the enquiry pages of insurers. 
• MITRA Portal – The Mutual Fund Investment Tracing and Retrieval Assistant (MITRA), hosted on MF Central.
• It enables investors to trace unclaimed and inactive mutual fund investments.
• Investor Education and Protection Fund Authority (IEPFA) portal – It provides a search facility that allows individuals to trace unclaimed dividends, shares or deposits by entering details such as PAN, Name or Company Name & Demat ID/Folio Number.

What lies ahead?

• Your Money, Your Right is a focused & citizen-centric initiative to reconnect individuals and families with their unclaimed financial assets.
• By combining awareness, simplified access and coordinated facilitation, the initiative addresses a long-standing gap in the financial system by ensuring rightful owners get their money back.
• At a broader level, the initiative strengthens trust in financial institutions, reinforces financial inclusion and promotes responsible financial practices.
• By ensuring that personal savings remain accessible, protected and transferable, Your Money, Your Right contributes to a more transparent, responsive and citizen-first financial ecosystem.

Reference

PIB | Your Money, Your Right Campaign

Lagging Of Manufacturing In India – The Puzzle of India’s Industrialisation

Why in News?

Recently, there has been questions surrounding the declining share of manufacturing ion the Indian economy and it is important to know the background and theoretical perspective.

What is the issue?

• Underperformance of manufacturing – One of the enduring puzzles of India’s development trajectory is the persistent underperformance of its manufacturing sector.
• India’s manufacturing sector has remained stagnant at around 15–17% of GDP, and in recent decades has even ceded space to services.
• Performance of other economies – This is significant especially when compared to non-Western economies such as China and South Korea, which started from broadly similar economic positions in the early 20th century.
• These economies successfully transitioned from agrarian structures to manufacturing-led growth.
• Comparative Perspective – China and South Korea followed export-oriented industrialisation strategies, combining state support, disciplined labour markets, and technological upgrading.
• Manufacturing in these economies expanded rapidly, creating millions of productive jobs and driving sustained productivity growth.
• India’s contradiction – India witnessed a phenomenon often described as “premature deindustrialisation”, where the economy shifted directly from agriculture to services without a strong manufacturing base.
• Service sector dominance – Services today contribute over 55% of India’s GDP, but this growth has been capital- and skill-intensive, limiting its ability to generate broad-based employment.

What are the Explanations of Economists?

• Arvind Subramanian’s Argument – Economist Arvind Subramanian, in his book A Sixth of Humanity, offers a provocative explanation by applying the concept of the Dutch disease to India’s development experience.
• Concept origin – Originally coined to explain the decline of Dutch manufacturing after the discovery of the Groningen gas fields in 1959.
• The Dutch disease refers to a situation where a booming sector crowds out other tradable sectors through wage and price effects.
• Effect of government sector – Subramanian argues that in India’s case, the expansion of the government sector with relatively high salaries functioned like an economic windfall.
• Result of high wages – High public-sector wages drew labour away from manufacturing, raised economy-wide wage expectations, and increased domestic prices.
• As a result, Indian manufacturing found it difficult to remain competitive both domestically and internationally.
• Working of dutch disease – The Dutch disease operates through two main channels:
  • Resource Movement Effect – Labour shifts from manufacturing to the booming sector (in this case, government services), raising wages across the economy.
  • Spending Effect – Higher incomes increase demand for domestic goods, pushing up prices.
• In a regime of free trade, rising domestic prices make imports cheaper relative to domestic manufactured goods, reducing demand for local manufacturing.
• Even without a change in the nominal exchange rate, the real exchange rate appreciates, eroding export competitiveness.
• Limits of the Dutch Disease Framework – While analytically appealing, this explanation has important limitations.
• The Dutch disease was originally developed to analyse exogenous windfalls, such as natural resource discoveries.
• High government salaries, by contrast, are the result of deliberate policy choices in a democratic polity.
• This distinction matters because policy-driven wage increases can, in principle, be accompanied by complementary investments in productivity and technology.
• Treating government salaries as an unavoidable windfall risks underplaying the role of private sector responses and long-term technological change.
• Alternative perspective – This theory suggests that high wages and labour scarcity can stimulate technological progress, encouraging firms to adopt labour-saving and productivity-enhancing technologies.
• Historical evidence – Economic historians such as Robert C. Allen argue that Britain’s high wages in the 18th and 19th centuries created incentives for mechanisation, triggering the Industrial Revolution.
• Daron Acemoglu shows that ageing labour forces in countries like Germany, Japan, and South Korea encouraged automation, leading to higher productivity and wages.
• From this perspective, high public-sector wages in India should have pushed manufacturing firms to innovate rather than stagnate.

What are the problems identified?

• Technological Stagnation in Manufacturing – The failure of Indian manufacturing to respond with technological upgrading suggests deeper structural issues.
• Lack of linkages – Unlike East Asian economies, India did not build strong linkages between the State, industry, and technology adoption.
• Policy & Other issues – Industrial policy remained fragmented, and firms often relied on cheap and abundant labour instead of investing in capital and skills.
• This pattern is evident even in India’s celebrated private sector growth. Despite rapid expansion, wage growth has remained subdued, and productivity gains have been uneven.
• The Services Sector Paradox – India’s services-led growth further complicates the picture.
• High-growth sectors such as IT and software services have generated wealth but limited employment elasticity. Entry-level wages in major IT firms have shown little real growth since the early 2000s, despite rising corporate profits.
• Moreover, many new-age “unicorns” such as Swiggy, Zomato, Blinkit, and Ola rely heavily on India’s vast pool of informal labour rather than frontier technological innovation.
• This reinforces a growth model that creates value without raising average productivity or wages.
• Inequality and the Nature of Growth – The consequences of this development path are visible in rising income and wealth inequality.
• While both the public and private sectors have expanded, the benefits have been unevenly distributed.
• Manufacturing, which could have provided stable, middle-income jobs at scale, failed to play its transformative role.
• If public-sector wages once kept incomes higher, it is legitimate to ask why private manufacturing did not match this through innovation and productivity growth.

What lies ahead?

• India’s manufacturing stagnation cannot be explained by a single framework.
• While the Dutch disease provides useful insights into wage and price dynamics, it is insufficient on its own.
• A comprehensive analysis must incorporate technological choices, labour market structures, industrial policy, and inequality dynamics.
• The central challenge for India today is not merely expanding manufacturing, but ensuring that growth is productivity-driven, technologically progressive, and employment-intensive.
• Without addressing the underlying incentives that shape innovation and wage growth, India risks remaining trapped in a model of high GDP growth with limited structural transformation.
• A renewed focus on technology-driven manufacturing, skill development, and coherent industrial policy is essential if India is to achieve inclusive and sustainable growth in the decades ahead.

Reference

The Hindu| Manufacturing in India

Ammonium sulfate

Why in News?

Nearly one-third of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 pollution is made up of secondary ammonium sulfate, according to analysis by the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA), a Finland-headquartered think-tank.

• Ammonium sulfate – It is a secondary inorganic aerosol formed through the oxidation of sulphur dioxide (SO2) into sulfate.
• Sources – Coal-based power plants (major SO₂ emitters), industrial activity (metallurgy, refineries), agriculture (ammonia emissions from fertilisers and livestock).
• Humidity factor – Its formation is enhanced under humid conditions, worsening Delhi’s smog.
• India’s SO₂ Emissions – India emits 11.2 million tonnes of SO₂ annually, the highest globally, second only to China, making India especially vulnerable to secondary PM2.5 formation.
• Seasonal Contribution in Delhi – Ammonium sulfate accounts for 49% of PM2.5 pollution during the post-monsoon period, 41% in winter, 21% in summer, and 9% in the monsoon.
• Drivers of Delhi’s Severe Pollution – The severe smog episodes are driven by regional SO₂ emissions & secondary chemical reactions in the atmosphere, rather than only local primary sources.
• Secondary PM2.5 in India – Secondary PM is a major contributor to India’s PM2.5 pollution, with up to 42% of India’s PM2.5 burden formed from gases like SO₂ and ammonia.
• Highest contributors – States dominated by coal-fired power plants - Chhattisgarh (42%), Odisha (41%), and Jharkhand and Telangana (40% each).              

Secondary particulate matter – Tiny particles formed in the atmosphere from chemical reactions between primary gaseous pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), ammonia and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).  SO₂, NOx, ammonia, VOCs.

• Other High-Contribution States – Bihar (39%), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal (38% each), as well as Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (37% each).
• Health Risks – Sulphur dioxide (SO2) primarily harms the respiratory system, causing irritation, coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath, as well as exacerbating asthma and lung diseases.
• Policy Gap – India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) focuses heavily on PM10 (coarse dust), but this study warns that secondary PM2.5 from SO₂ emissions is being overlooked.
• Urgency – Controlling SO₂ emissions from coal plants and ammonia from agriculture is critical to reducing Delhi’s deadly PM2.5 burden.

Reference

Indian Express | One-third of Delhi’s annual PM2.5 pollution is secondary ammonium sulfate

100 Years of Communist Party of India (CPI)

Why in News?

The Communist Party of India (CPI) has completed its 100 years, and considers December 26, 1925, as its foundation date.

• Origins of the CPI – It was founded in 1925 in Kanpur, inspired by Marxist ideas and the Russian Revolution.
• Initially operated underground due to colonial repression, focusing on workers’ rights and anti-imperialist struggles.
• Inspired global events – The French Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Karl Marx’s theories, and the Russian Revolution led by Lenin.
• Origin – Tashkent vs Kanpur
  • 1920, Tashkent – M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji, and Evelyn Roy issued a manifesto under Comintern influence calling for a communist party in India.
  • 1925, Kanpur – Indian communists from Lahore, Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras convened in Kanpur, resolving to form the Communist Party of India.
  • Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1923) – Leaders S.V. Ghate, S.A. Dange, and Muzaffar Ahmad were jailed.
• The 1964 Split – Triggered by the Sino‑Soviet ideological rift and India–China border clashes (1962).
• 2 factions – CPI(M) views Tashkent 1920 as the true foundation, whereas CPI views Kanpur 1925 as the real foundation.
• 3 political strands in India - Diasporic Revolutionaries & M.N. Roy, Indigenous Left Groups in India, Workers’ & Peasants’ Organisations.

• Key leaders included – M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji, Raja Mahendra Pratap, Abdul Rab, S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmad, S.V. Ghate, and Singaravelu M. Chettiar, etc.
• Communists’ role in the freedom struggle –
  • In 1925-28, the Communists were active in the formation of workers and peasant parties (WPPs).
  • In 1929, the Communist leaders were accused of organising a railway strike and charged under the Meerut Conspiracy Case.
  • In the 1930s, collaborated with the Congress Socialist Party (CSP, founded 1934) and other anti‑imperialist forces.
  • After 1945, the Communists led crucial peasant struggles, such as the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana struggle, etc.
• Electoral Role – In the 1950s, CPI became the principal opposition party in Lok Sabha elections (1951, 1957, 1962), briefly governed Kerala, and later ruled states through Left Front coalitions, but saw a sharp national decline after 2009.
• After independence (1947), CPI demanded adult suffrage, women’s equality, land redistribution, and workers’ rights.

References

1. Indian Express | 100 years of CPI
2. Britannica | CPI

Tsunami Ready Recognition Programme (TRRP)

Why in News?

India would soon have over 100 tsunami-ready villages in the Indian Ocean region & India will be the 1^st country with as many villages in this region with this distinction.

• TRRP – It is an international voluntary community-based effort to bolster risk prevention and mitigation across global coastal zones.
• Aim – To build tsunami resilience through awareness and preparedness strategies that will protect life, livelihoods and property from tsunamis.
• Developed by - UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC).
• Stakeholders Involved –
  • Communities at risk - Millions living in coastal hazard zones.
  • Warning & emergency agencies - Provide alerts and manage responses.
  • Government authorities - Integrate tsunami risk mitigation into development agendas.
  • Community leaders & public - Spread awareness and encourage participation.
• Standardised Indicators – The communities must meet all 12 indicators, covering:
  • Assessment - Hazard mapping, risk assessment.
  • Preparedness - Public display of maps, education materials, community training (search/rescue, first aid).
  • Response - 24-hour warning systems, annual mock drills, clear evacuation plans, integration into emergency plans.
• Recognition – The villages that meet all criteria receive "Tsunami Ready" certification, which is renewable every 4 years.
• Examples include - Cannes, France; Venkatraipur, Odisha, India; Glagah & Kemadang, Indonesia; etc.
• National Implementation – In India, the Ministry of Earth Sciences, through the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS), leads the effort via the National Tsunami Ready Board, training villages in skills for tsunamis, cyclones, and floods.
• Current & Upcoming Status – Odisha leads India with 24 certified villages (adding 72 more), while Gujarat, Kerala (9 by 2026), Andhra Pradesh, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands are preparing communities for Tsunami Ready recognition.

References

1. Indian Express | 100 villages to be tsunami-ready in Indian Ocean region
2. UNESCO | Tsunami Ready Initiative

Institution of National Importance (INI) tag

Why in News?

In December 2025, a Parliamentary Standing Committee on education recommended that the Union government consider granting the Auroville Foundation the status of an Institution of National Importance (INI).

• Institutes of National Importance (INIs) – These are premier public bodies, formulated under the Government of India through the Act of Parliament.
• Purpose – To develop highly skilled professionals in fields like engineering, medicine, management, science and so on.
• Legal Basis – Mentioned in the Constitution (7^th Schedule, Entry 63) and reinforced by the UGC Act, 1956 (Section 22).
• Examples of INI – IITs, IIMs, AIIMS, NITs, etc.
• Present status – As of mid-2024, India has around 171 INIs, with categories like 23 IITs, 20 AIIMS, 21 IIMs, and many others making up the total.

Benefits of INIs

• Greater independence allows institutions to improve efficiency, quality, and accountability.
• Access to enhanced financial support from the government.
• Ability to deliver higher standards of education and strengthen research infrastructure.
• Capacity for quicker decisions without bureaucratic delays and very limited political interference in day‑to‑day functioning.
• Potential to offer more scholarships to deserving students.
• Opportunity to expand sports facilities, seminars, and extracurricular activities.

Quick Fact

References

1. The Hindu | From universal township to national institution?
2. Digital Sansad | Institutes of National Importance

Dulhasti hydel power project

Why in News?

A panel under the Ministry of Environment has approved the 260-megawatt Dulhasti Stage-II hydropower project in Jammu and Kashmir's Kishtwar district.

• Dulhasti-I – It is a run-of-the-river scheme commissioned in 2007 by NHPC Ltd.
• Dulhasti Stage-II – It is an extension of the existing 390 MW Dulhasti Stage-I Hydro Electric Project (Dulhasti Power Station).
• It will utilise the existing dam, reservoir, and power intake of the stage-I project, and draw water from the Marusudar River through the Pakal Dul project.

Marusudar River - A major tributary of the Chenab, crucial for downstream ecology and communities.

• Located on – The Chenab River in the Kishtwar district, Jammu & Kashmir.
• Developed by – NHPC Limited on a Build, Own, Operate, and Transfer (BOOT) basis.
• Capacity – It is designed to generate 803.33 million units annually with an installed capacity of 260 MW (2 × 130 MW).
• Beneficiaries – Power is supplied to the Northern Grid, benefiting states including Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Delhi.
• Other hydroelectric projects in the Indus basin – Such as Sawalkote, Ratle, Bursar, Pakal Dul, Kwar, Kiru, and Kirthai I and II.
• Geopolitical Context – The Chenab basin is shared between India and Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty (1960).
• India suspended the treaty on April 23, 2025, following the Pahalgam terror attack.

Quick Fact

References

1. The Hindu | Centre's nod to Dulhasti hydel power project
2. Indian Express |  Centre's nod to Dulhasti hydel power project
3. Britannica | River Chenab