Strait of Hormuz Crisis and International Law

Why in News?

The Strait of Hormuz, a narrow maritime chokepoint connecting the Persian Gulf to the Arabian Sea, has once again become the centre of geopolitical tensions.

How UNCLOS framework is governing international waters?

• UNCLOS – The global maritime order is primarily governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which came into force in 1994 after decades of negotiation.
• UNCLOS establishes that the seas are part of a shared global commons and lays down rules for navigation, resource use, and dispute resolution.
• Central principle – A central principle under UNCLOS is the freedom of navigation, particularly on the high seas, which lie beyond the jurisdiction of any single state.
• Permissions – Merchant vessels enjoy near-unrestricted passage in these waters.
• Exceptions – However, exceptions exist, including:
  • Hot pursuit of vessels violating laws in territorial waters
  • Interceptions authorised by the UN Security Council
  • Stateless vessels
  • Interception with consent from the vessel’s flag state
• Innocent passage – Outside the high seas, within territorial waters (up to 12 nautical miles from a coast), ships are entitled to “innocent passage”, provided they do not threaten the coastal state’s security.

What are the recent developments?

• Iran’s recent measures — restricting transit, imposing tolls reportedly exceeding $1 million per vessel, and selectively allowing passage based on geopolitical considerations—raise serious legal concerns.
• Under UNCLOS, charging tolls or requiring permits for transit passage is not permitted.
• Transit through international straits must remain free and unimpeded.
• Iran’s actions, including firing on vessels and detaining ships like Francesca and Epaminondas, appear inconsistent with its obligations.
• Iran has justified its actions on grounds of maritime security violations, alleging that certain vessels operated without permits or tampered with navigation systems.
• However, such claims must meet strict international standards, and enforcement measures must remain proportionate.
• In essence, Iran’s attempt to regulate and monetise transit through the Strait of Hormuz lacks clear legal backing under international law.
• The U.S. Blockade &Legality in Question – The United States’ response—declaring a blockade of Iranian vessels and intercepting ships on the high seas—also presents complex legal challenges.
• Unlike sanctions authorised by the United Nations Security Council, U.S. sanctions are unilateral and based on domestic law.
• While they may be enforceable within U.S. jurisdiction, their application on the high seas is controversial.
• The interception of vessels such as Touska and Tifani raises key legal issues:
  • On the high seas, ships enjoy freedom from interference unless specific exceptions apply
  • The U.S. may argue flag state consent or security concerns
• However, absent UN authorisation, such actions risk being viewed as violations of international law
• The U.S. “blockade,” described as a mix of warnings and interdictions rather than a full naval encirclement, further complicates matters.
• Traditionally, blockades are recognised under the law of armed conflict at sea, but they must meet strict criteria, including notification, effectiveness, and neutrality.
• Thus, the legality of U.S. actions remains debatable and contested.
• Escalation and Retaliation Dynamics – The situation has rapidly escalated into a cycle of action and retaliation.
• Following U.S. interceptions, Iran targeted multiple vessels, including Indian-flagged ships such as Sanmar Herald and Jag Arnav, forcing them to retreat.
• Subsequently, Iran detained additional ships and warned that the Strait would remain closed unless the U.S. blockade is lifted.
• This tit-for-tat escalation underscores the vulnerability of global shipping lanes to geopolitical conflicts.
• Notably, India, heavily dependent on energy imports through the Strait, has asserted that it has not paid any tolls and is exercising its legitimate right to free navigation.

What is the role of international institutions?

• IMO – In such crises, the primary international body responsible for maritime governance is the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
• The IMO works to ensure safe, secure, and efficient shipping and to uphold international maritime law.

• Role of IMO
  • Condemned attacks on commercial vessels
  • Opposed tolls and permit systems in international straits
  • Proposed measures to facilitate safe passage and evacuation of ships
• Limitations – However, the IMO lacks enforcement powers and relies on cooperation among member states.
• Requisite – Broader conflict resolution may require intervention from the United Nations, particularly the Security Council, though geopolitical divisions often limit decisive action.

What measures can be taken?

• Diplomatic Resolution – Renewed negotiations could restore normal transit and reduce tensions
• International Mediation – Greater involvement by the UN or IMO could help establish interim arrangements
• Continued Escalation – Further interceptions and retaliatory actions could disrupt global supply chains
• Militarisation of the Strait – Increased naval presence may deter conflict but also heighten risks of confrontation
• The current crisis highlights the limitations of international law when confronted with power politics.
• While UNCLOS provides a robust framework, its effectiveness ultimately depends on state compliance and mutual restraint.

What lies ahead?

• The Strait of Hormuz crisis exemplifies the tension between legal norms and strategic interests.
• Both Iran’s restrictions on transit and the U.S.’s interdictions raise significant legal questions under international law.
• As maritime chokepoints become arenas of geopolitical rivalry, the need for adherence to established legal principles becomes ever more urgent.
• Ensuring freedom of navigation, maintaining the rule-based maritime order, and preventing escalation will require not just legal clarity, but also sustained diplomatic engagement and international cooperation.

Reference

The Hindu| Rules Governing International Waters

Mahanadi River Water Dispute

Why in News?

Recently, the Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (MWDT) has given Odisha and Chhattisgarh a final opportunity to reach an amicable settlement.

• River Mahanadi – It is the third largest east-flowing peninsular river of India after Godavari and Krishna.
• Origin – Sihawa hills, Dhamtari district, Chhattisgarh.
• Course – Flows through Chhattisgarh and Odisha, drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Length – Its total course spans approximately 851 km to 900 km.
• Catchment Area – 1,41,600 sq km.
  • Chhattisgarh – 53.9%
  • Odisha – 45.73%
  • Small portions – Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jharkhand.
• Major Tributaries – Seonath, Hasdeo, Mand, Ib, Ong, Jonk, Tel.
  • Seonath is the longest tributary.
• Key Dam – Hirakud Dam (Odisha), one of the longest earthen dams in the world.

About the Dispute

• It is a long-standing conflict (since 2016) between Odisha and Chhattisgarh over the sharing of the Mahanadi river's water.
• Odisha’s Stand – Chhattisgarh’s unilateral construction of at least eight barrages reduced downstream flow, impacting agriculture, fisheries, and power generation.
  • Odisha calls the Mahanadi its “lifeline” for agriculture, fisheries, and power.
• Chhattisgarh’s Stand – As an upper riparian state with a larger catchment, it claims the right to utilise water; it also alleges Odisha initiated projects without consultation.

Upper Riparian State – The state where the river originates or flows first & Lower Riparian State – The state downstream, receiving the river’s flow after passing through the upper state.

• 1983 Agreement – Between Odisha and undivided Madhya Pradesh; Chhattisgarh cites it for joint supervision.
• Joint Control Board (JCB) – Proposed by Chhattisgarh, but Odisha preferred the tribunal route.
• Tribunal Formation – The Mahanadi Water Disputes Tribunal (MWDT) was constituted in 2018 following the Supreme Court directives.
• Current Status – Tribunal extended till April 2026; warned states to finalise settlement formula.
• Legal Framework
• Article 262 – Provides for adjudication of inter‑state river disputes & empowers Parliament to set up tribunals under the 1956 Act.
• Inter‑State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 – Separate tribunals for each dispute, causing delays.
• In 2019 Amendment – Single standalone tribunal with multiple benches, strict timelines for awards, aimed at faster resolution.
• Supreme Court (2016) – Odisha filed suit under Article 131 seeking an injunction against Chhattisgarh.
  • Article 131 – Defines the Supreme Court's exclusive original jurisdiction over legal disputes between the Government of India and one or more States, or between States inter se.

Reference

The Indian Express | Odisha–Chhattisgarh Mahanadi River Dispute

BRICS

Why in News?

India, as Chair of BRICS in 2026, issued a Chair’s summary noting “deep concern” over the ongoing conflict in West Asia, since consensus among members was elusive.

• BRICS – It is a major intergovernmental organisation designed to foster economic, political, and strategic cooperation among emerging markets.
• It stands for the emerging economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
• Coined by – Jim O’Neill (Goldman Sachs) in 2001 to describe major emerging economies.
• Formalisation – 1st BRIC Foreign Ministers’ meeting, UNGA sidelines, New York (2006), became BRICS when South Africa joined in 2010.
• Membership
• Full Members (11) – Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Indonesia (2025).
• Partner Countries (10) – Newly created category at Kazan Summit (2024), Belarus, Bolivia, Cuba, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Thailand, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Vietnam. 

• Chairmanship – The presidency rotates among members for a term that lasts for one year, beginning on January 1 and ending on December 31.
• Responsibilities – The chair country sets the theme and annual priorities, hosts the annual BRICS summit, and coordinates meetings across the political, economic, and cultural pillars.
• Core Pillars/ Areas of Cooperation  
  • Political & Security;
  • Economic & Financial; and
  • Cultural and People‑to‑People Exchanges.
• Institutional Framework
• New Development Bank (NDB) – Established 2014 Fortaleza Summit; HQ in Shanghai; equal voting shares among founding members; open to all UN members.
• Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) – Provides short‑term liquidity support to BRICS members during Balance of Payments (BoP) crises through currency swaps.
• Secretariat – BRICS has no permanent secretariat or formal charter; it operates via annual rotating chairmanship.

Role of BRICS

• Counterbalance to Western institutions – Challenges the dominance of G7, IMF, World Bank.

G7 (Group of Seven) – Group of Seven advanced economies – Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, United Kingdom, United States, formed in 1975.

• United Nations Security Council (UNSC) & multilateral reform – Pushes for democratisation and greater Global South representation.
• Financial architecture – NDB for development finance; CRA for liquidity support in crises.
• De‑dollarisation – Encourages trade in local currencies to reduce US dollar dependence.
• Political & security cooperation – Counter‑terrorism, cybersecurity, conflict mediation.
• South–South cooperation – Platform for Global South voices in trade, technology, and development.
• Significance – The grouping now represents nearly half the world’s population (49.5%), 40% of global GDP, and 26% of world trade.

Reference

Indian Express | BRICS

Konark Sun Temple

Why in News?

Recently, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has begun drilling into the Jagamohan of Konark Sun Temple to remove sand packed inside to stabilise the structure during the British era.

• Location – Situated in Konark, Odisha, near the Bay of Bengal, dedicated to the Hindu god Surya.
• It is an important pilgrimage site, part of Odisha’s Golden Triangle (Bhubaneswar–Puri–Konark).
• It is also referred to as the ‘Black Pagoda’ due to its dark colour.
• Construction – It was built around 1250 CE by the King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty in the 13^th Century.
• Recognition – Recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984.
• Architecture – It belongs to the Kalinga style (sub-style of Nagara), characterised by a Deula (sanctum), Nata-Mandira (Dance Hall)  and Jagamohana (assembly hall).
  • Originally had a towering shikhara (collapsed in the 19th century).
• Structural Status – The main temple tower (deul), along with the shikhara, collapsed; Jagamohan is intact.
• Construction Material – Built with Khond alite stones; advanced knowledge of astronomy reflected in alignment with sunrise; first rays fall on the entrance.
  • Khond alite stones – It is a foliated metamorphic rock (garnetiferous-sillimanite schist/gneiss) found primarily in India's Eastern Ghats, named after the Khond tribe of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
• Features
• Symbolism – A giant stone chariot of the Sun God, featuring 24 intricately carved wheels and seven horses.
  • The 24 wheels represent the hours of the day and the cycle of time.
  • The seven horses symbolise the seven days of the week and the Sun’s energy.
• Artistic Features – The reliefs of lions, dancers, musicians, and erotic sculptures & also depict scenes from daily life, mythology and cultural practices of that time.

References

1. Indian Express | Sun Temple
2. MSN | Sun Temple

Vikram-1 Orbital Launch Vehicle

Why in News?

Recently, Skyroot Aerospace flagged off the payload fairing of Vikram-1; this launch campaign begins soon, marking a historic milestone in India’s private space sector.

• Rocket Type – India’s first privately developed multi‑stage orbital launch vehicle, authorised by IN‑SPACe, set to pioneer private orbital satellite launches.
• Developed by – Skyroot Aerospace (private company).
  • Skyroot was also the 1^st private company to carry out a single-stage sub-orbital flight in 2022.
• Launch site – Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.

Features

• Multi-stage launch vehicle – solid + liquid propulsion + cryogenic.
• Height – Approximately 23 metres (equivalent to a 7‑storey building).
• Honour – The launch vehicle has been named to honour Dr Vikram Sarabhai, considered to be the father of the Indian space programme.
• Propulsion systems – Named after Indian scientific pioneers –
  • High thrust solid boosters for liftoff - Kalam
  • Liquid engines for orbital precision - Raman
  • Cryogenic stage - Dhawan
• Payload capacity – Up to 350 kg to Low Earth Orbit; 260 kg to Sun‑synchronous Orbit.
• Structure – It is made of
  • Carbon composite instead of metals – Lightweight, faster assembly, cost‑effective.
  • 3D‑printed engines – Indigenously developed, reduce manufacturing time and assembly easier, quicker and cheaper.
  • Flexibility – Dedicated and rideshare launches; custom orbital deployment.

Quick Fact

References

1. Indian Express | Vikram - 1
2. NDTV | Vikram - 1
3. Skyroot | Vikram - 1