12 Years of PM Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)

Mains: GSII – Governance and Social Justice

PM Jan Dhan Yojana: Driving India’s Journey Towards Financial Inclusion

• Financial inclusion is essential for broad-based economic growth and poverty reduction.
• Access to formal financial services helps people manage risks, invest in their future and build livelihoods.
• It also supports greater economic participation and reduces income inequalities.
• For women, access to finance strengthens financial independence and economic empowerment.
• The Government has therefore made financial inclusion a key priority through several targeted initiatives.
• The PM Jan Dhan Yojana (PM-JDY), India’s national mission for financial inclusion, was launched in 2014.
• As the scheme celebrates its 12^th anniversary, it continues to bring more people into the formal financial system and ensure inclusive growth.

Breaking down PM-JDY: Access and Benefits

• As the world's largest financial inclusion initiative, PM-JDY is redefining access to banking for millions of underprivileged citizens.
• The scheme initially focused on providing a bank account to “every household.” In 2018, its focus expanded to ensure that “every unbanked adult” had access to a bank account, thereby widening the reach of financial inclusion.
• It provides basic banking services, need-based credit, remittances, insurance and pension to underserved and low-income groups.

Who is eligible to open the account?

• All citizens of Indian nationality are eligible to open PM-JDY accounts,with no upper agelimit.
• One basic savings bank account is opened for unbanked person.
• There is no requirement to maintain any minimum balance.

Where can a PM-JDY account be opened, and can it be held jointly?

• Under PM-JDY, individuals can open an account by visiting a bank branch or Business Correspondent/ Bank Mitra outlet (an extended arm of the Bank Branch).
• The account opening form along with the required KYC documents has to be submitted. Upon verification, the account is activated by the bank.
• A joint account can also be opened.

What documents are required to open the account?

Documents required for opening a PM-JDY account include:

• Aadhaar card
• Government ID proof- voter ID, PAN card or ration card
• Permanent address proof- passport, driving licence, electricity, telephone or water bill
• Passport-size photograph
• Duly filled and signed PMJDY account opening form
• Any other document notified by the Government.

What is the interest income on savings in the account?

• The interest rate applicable to savings bank accounts is applicable to accounts opened under PMJDY scheme.

What is a RuPay debit card and inbuilt accident insurance?

• RuPay Debit card is provided to PM-JDY account holder. It is a domestic debit card and is accepted at all ATMs and most PoS machines.
• Accident insurance cover of ₹1 lakh (enhanced to ₹2 lakhs to new PMJDY accounts opened after August2018) is available.
• No premium is charged from the beneficiary and the premium is paid by the National Payments Corporation of India.

What overdraft facility is available?

• Overdraft facility up to ₹10,000 is available to one PM-JDY account holder per household.
• This can be availed after 6 months of satisfactory operation of the account, subject to fulfilling the eligibility criteria.

What are the social security schemes offered under PM-JDY?

• PM-JDY accounts are eligible for Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PM-JJBY), Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PM-SBY), Atal Pension Yojana (APY), Micro Units Development & Refinance Agency Bank (MUDRA) scheme.

The Jan Dhan Impact

Over the years, PMJDY has achieved several key milestones:

Accounts on the Rise

• PM-JDY accounts have grown 4x over the last 12 years. Accounts rose from 14.72 crore in 2015 to 59.09 crore as of 19^th August 2026. Of these, 45.95 crore accounts are in rural and semi-urban areas, while 13.14 crore are in urban and metropolitan areas.
• This reflects the scheme’s wide reach and significant progress in bringing underserved and unbanked populations into the formal banking system.

Deposits Multiplying over the Years

PM-JDY deposits have surged ~20x, rising from ₹15,670 crore in March 2015 to ₹3,16,514 crore as of 19^th August 2026.

This rise reflects growing saving habit among low-income households, increasing trust in formal banking, and deeper participation in the financial system.

RuPay Cards Continue to be Issued

As of 19^th August 2026, 41.29 crore RuPay debit cards have been issued to PM-JDY account holders, reflecting a rise in digital transactions.

One Account, A World of Opportunities

PM-JDY has transformed financial inclusion from a policy objective into a lived reality for millions of Indians. It has expanded access to banking, strengthened financial security, and connected underserved citizens with credit, insurance, pensions and digital payments. Its impact extends beyond rising accounts and deposits, strengthening formal financial identities and fostering greater economic confidence among people.

Reference

PIB| 12 Years of PM Jan Dhan Yojana

Anti-Microbial Resistance (AMR) problem

Why in news?

A recent study of hospitalised patients across India has found that infections caused by antibiotic-resistant “Gram-negative” bacteria are more likely to be fatal and more expensive.

What is Anti-Microbial resistance?

• Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) – It occurs when germs like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change and stop responding to the medicines designed to kill them.
• AMR specifically refers to resistance against antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitic drugs.
• Therefore, antibiotic resistance is one type of AMR.
• Gram-negative bacteria – These are a group of bacteria that can cause infections in different parts of the body, including the lungs, urinary tract etc.
• These include pathogens such as:
  • Escherichia coli (commonly known as E. coli),
  • Klebsiella pneumoniae,
  • Acinetobacter baumannii and
  • Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• One important group of antibiotics used for serious infections is carbapenems.
• carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria are particularly concerning as they have very few effective treatment options.
• Recent ICMR study – across 20 tertiary-care hospitals (2022–2025), involving 1.59 lakh patients, highlights the growing clinical and economic burden of such infections.

Why are Carbapenem-Resistant Infections a Concern?

• Fewer effective drugs – Carbapenem resistance eliminates one of the most important treatment options leaving doctors with limited alternatives.
• Delayed appropriate treatment – Resistance may take time to identify, causing delays in giving an effective antibiotic and allowing the infection to worsen.
• Higher complications & mortality – Inadequately treated resistant infections can rapidly progress to complications such as sepsis and organ failure.
• Higher healthcare costs – Resistant infections often require costlier antibiotics, longer hospital stays, intensive care increasing the financial burden.

What are the factors driving AMR?

• Antibiotic selection pressure – Excessive or inappropriate antibiotic use encourages survival of resistant bacteria.
• Healthcare-associated transmission – Hospitals can become reservoirs for resistant pathogens. Poor infection-control practices facilitate transmission.
• Invasive medical devices – Prolonged use of Catheters, ventilators and other devices increase can facilitate infection risks.
• Delayed diagnosis – Conventional diagnosis may take time. Delayed identification of resistance can result in inappropriate initial therapy.
• Inadequate infection prevention – Poor hand hygiene, Inadequate environmental cleaning, Weak surgical infection prevention, Improper device insertion/removal.
• Limited treatment options – Resistance to last-line antibiotics leaves clinicians with fewer effective alternatives.

What are the implications of AMR?

• Public Health – It results in increased mortality and morbidity. Particularly dangerous in bloodstream infections and critically ill patients.
• Longer hospitalisation – Increased diagnostic and prolonged supportive-care requirements.
• Economic burden – Additional costs from ICU care, investigations, procedures and prolonged hospitalisation.
• Threat to modern medicine – AMR can undermine the safety of Major surgeries, Cancer chemotherapy, Organ transplantation, Intensive-care treatment.
• Developmental concern – AMR can reduce productivity and impose a broader economic burden, making it not merely a medical issue but a developmental challenge.

What needs to be done to address AMR?

• Better surveillance – Move from isolate-based AMR surveillance to integrated surveillance that connects laboratory results with patient outcomes, and treatment.
• Accurate diagnostics – To distinguish bacterial infection from non-bacterial illness and identify resistance early.
• Responsible management – Antimicrobial stewardship has to become routine clinical practice—not an optional hospital programme.
• Attention to infection prevention – It must receive as much attention as antibiotic prescribing, particularly because these infections are healthcare-associated.
• New treatments – Responsible access to effective newer antimicrobials, coupled with stewardship, to make these drugs remain effective when patients genuinely need them.

What lies ahead?

• AMR cannot be solved by discovering another antibiotic every time an old one fails.
• It is needed to prevent infections, diagnose them early and preserve the antibiotics we still have.

Reference

The Indian Express| India’s AMR problem

Mental Health

Why in News?

Recently, the World Health Organization (WHO) report revealed that, more than 1 billion people are living with mental health disorders.

What is mental health?

• Mental health – The World Health Organization (WHO) defines mental health as a state of well-being in which every individual realizes his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her or his community.
• Mental health is a public and global health topic that is not discussed as much as physical health.

• Causes

• Issues – The issues and impacts of mental health are
  • Impacts everyone – Mental health conditions adversely affect people of all ages and income levels.
  • Reason for disability – They represent the second biggest reason for long-term disability, contributing to loss of healthy life.
  • Increases health care costs – They drive up health-care costs for affected people and families while inflicting substantial economic losses on a global scale.
  • Transforming mental health services is one of the most pressing public health challenges.
  • Stigma and reluctance – The hesitancy to seek help and treatment and lack of manpower remain the major concerns in the sector.
• The report states that most countries have functional mental health promotion initiatives such as early childhood development, school-based mental health and suicide prevention programmes.
• Over 80% of countries now offer mental health and psychosocial support as part of emergency responses, up from 39% in 2020.

What are the flaws in the mental care environment?

• Absence of legal reforms – While many countries have updated their policies, adopted rights-based approaches, and enhanced preparedness for mental health and psychosocial support during health emergencies, this momentum has not translated into legal reform.
• Countries remain off track to achieve the targets set in WHO’s Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan.
• Fewer countries have adopted or enforced rights-based mental health legislation, and only 45% of countries evaluated laws in full compliance with international human rights standards.
• Reduced investments – The report reveals a concerning stagnation in mental health investment.
• Median government spending on mental health remains at just 2% of total health budgets, unchanged since 2017.
• Disparities in investments – While high-income countries spend up to $65 per person on mental health, low-income countries spend as little as $0.04.
• Less availability of mental health experts – The global median number of mental health workers stands at 13 per 100,000 people, with extreme shortages in low- and middle-income countries.
• Less Reforms and development of mental health services – Fewer than 10% of countries have fully transitioned to community-based care models, with most countries still in the early stages of transition.
• Inpatient care continues to rely heavily on psychiatric hospitals, with nearly half of admissions occurring involuntarily and over 20% lasting longer than a year.
• Integration of mental health into primary care is advancing, with 71% of countries meeting at least three of five WHO criteria.
• Gaps in data – Only 22 countries provided sufficient data to estimate service coverage for psychosis.
• Lack of care – In low-income countries fewer than 10% of affected individuals receive care, compared to over 50% in higher-income nations, highlighting an urgent need to expand access and strengthen service delivery.

What is India’s Status on Mental Health?

• Status in India – Mental illness affects around one in seven Indians, yet a large majority of those needing treatment do not receive it because of a severe shortage of mental-health professionals and inadequate access to care.
• Mental and physical health are closely connected.
• Initiatives – India already has important infrastructure in place, including Ayushman Bharat Arogya Mandirs, the District Mental Health Programme, and Tele-MANAS.
• Progress made – There has been significant infrastructure development, the national tele-mental health programme has expanded.
• The educational development is happening at a fast pace and focused work is being done to create awareness about mental health and the treatment.
• Insufficient budget – India’s direct mental health budget has remained at roughly Rs.1,000 crore for recent fiscal years, with FY 2025-26 allocating Rs.1,004 crore.
• This constitutes just over 1% of the Ministry’s budget, with significant portions going to central institutions and programmes.
• Adequate funding for community-based programmes and the effective utilisation of allocated funds is still a concern.
• Lack of experts – India has a significant shortfall of mental health professionals, with roughly 0.7 psychiatrists per 100,000 people, far below the WHO’s recommended ratio of 3 per 100,000 people.

What India could do Further?

• Expansion of Schemes – The next step is to expand the initiatives by training frontline health workers, strengthening community-based mental healthcare, and improving financial protection through insurance and government health schemes.
• Empowering Stakeholders – Empowering ASHA workers, investing in community-based care, and expanding affordable mental-health coverage.
• ASHA workers and other frontline health workers should receive better training so they can identify mental-health problems early, provide basic support, and connect patients with appropriate services
• Community-based programmes should be expanded, especially in rural and underserved areas, using trained community workers to make care more accessible and affordable.
• Mental-health treatment should become more financially accessible by expanding insurance coverage and outpatient benefits.
• Prioritising Mental Health – Treating mental health as an investment in human capital and economic development will be essential for building a healthier and more productive India by 2047.
• If India wants to achieve its vision of becoming a developed nation by 2047, mental health must become an integral part of public health policy rather than remaining a neglected issue.
• Mental health should be made a central part of India’s public health strategy if the country is to achieve the goal of Viksit Bharat 2047.

What is the way ahead?

• Ultimately, mental health is not merely a social or medical concern. It is an investment in India’s human capital, productivity, economic growth, and overall quality of life. Making mental well-being a core component of public policy will be crucial to achieving the ambitions of Viksit Bharat 2047.

If you are in distress, please reach out to MANAS at 14416 or 18008914416 and Sanjivini Society for Mental Health at 011-40769002

Reference

The Hindu| Mental Health

12 Years of PM Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)

Mains: GSII – Governance and Social Justice

PM Jan Dhan Yojana: Driving India’s Journey Towards Financial Inclusion

• Financial inclusion is essential for broad-based economic growth and poverty reduction.
• Access to formal financial services helps people manage risks, invest in their future and build livelihoods.
• It also supports greater economic participation and reduces income inequalities.
• For women, access to finance strengthens financial independence and economic empowerment.
• The Government has therefore made financial inclusion a key priority through several targeted initiatives.
• The PM Jan Dhan Yojana (PM-JDY), India’s national mission for financial inclusion, was launched in 2014.
• As the scheme celebrates its 12^th anniversary, it continues to bring more people into the formal financial system and ensure inclusive growth.

Breaking down PM-JDY: Access and Benefits

• As the world's largest financial inclusion initiative, PM-JDY is redefining access to banking for millions of underprivileged citizens.
• The scheme initially focused on providing a bank account to “every household.” In 2018, its focus expanded to ensure that “every unbanked adult” had access to a bank account, thereby widening the reach of financial inclusion.
• It provides basic banking services, need-based credit, remittances, insurance and pension to underserved and low-income groups.

Who is eligible to open the account?

• All citizens of Indian nationality are eligible to open PM-JDY accounts,with no upper agelimit.
• One basic savings bank account is opened for unbanked person.
• There is no requirement to maintain any minimum balance.

Where can a PM-JDY account be opened, and can it be held jointly?

• Under PM-JDY, individuals can open an account by visiting a bank branch or Business Correspondent/ Bank Mitra outlet (an extended arm of the Bank Branch).
• The account opening form along with the required KYC documents has to be submitted. Upon verification, the account is activated by the bank.
• A joint account can also be opened.

What documents are required to open the account?

Documents required for opening a PM-JDY account include:

• Aadhaar card
• Government ID proof- voter ID, PAN card or ration card
• Permanent address proof- passport, driving licence, electricity, telephone or water bill
• Passport-size photograph
• Duly filled and signed PMJDY account opening form
• Any other document notified by the Government.

What is the interest income on savings in the account?

• The interest rate applicable to savings bank accounts is applicable to accounts opened under PMJDY scheme.

What is a RuPay debit card and inbuilt accident insurance?

• RuPay Debit card is provided to PM-JDY account holder. It is a domestic debit card and is accepted at all ATMs and most PoS machines.
• Accident insurance cover of ₹1 lakh (enhanced to ₹2 lakhs to new PMJDY accounts opened after August2018) is available.
• No premium is charged from the beneficiary and the premium is paid by the National Payments Corporation of India.

What overdraft facility is available?

• Overdraft facility up to ₹10,000 is available to one PM-JDY account holder per household.
• This can be availed after 6 months of satisfactory operation of the account, subject to fulfilling the eligibility criteria.

What are the social security schemes offered under PM-JDY?

• PM-JDY accounts are eligible for Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT), Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana (PM-JJBY), Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PM-SBY), Atal Pension Yojana (APY), Micro Units Development & Refinance Agency Bank (MUDRA) scheme.

The Jan Dhan Impact

Over the years, PMJDY has achieved several key milestones:

Accounts on the Rise

• PM-JDY accounts have grown 4x over the last 12 years. Accounts rose from 14.72 crore in 2015 to 59.09 crore as of 19^th August 2026. Of these, 45.95 crore accounts are in rural and semi-urban areas, while 13.14 crore are in urban and metropolitan areas.
• This reflects the scheme’s wide reach and significant progress in bringing underserved and unbanked populations into the formal banking system.

Deposits Multiplying over the Years

PM-JDY deposits have surged ~20x, rising from ₹15,670 crore in March 2015 to ₹3,16,514 crore as of 19^th August 2026.

This rise reflects growing saving habit among low-income households, increasing trust in formal banking, and deeper participation in the financial system.

RuPay Cards Continue to be Issued

As of 19^th August 2026, 41.29 crore RuPay debit cards have been issued to PM-JDY account holders, reflecting a rise in digital transactions.

One Account, A World of Opportunities

PM-JDY has transformed financial inclusion from a policy objective into a lived reality for millions of Indians. It has expanded access to banking, strengthened financial security, and connected underserved citizens with credit, insurance, pensions and digital payments. Its impact extends beyond rising accounts and deposits, strengthening formal financial identities and fostering greater economic confidence among people.

Reference

PIB| 12 Years of PM Jan Dhan Yojana

Legal Enforcement of Indian Standard Time (IST)

Why in News?

The recent Legal Metrology (Indian Standard Time) Rules, 2026 make Indian Standard Time (IST) a legally enforceable reference for official and commercial use.

What is Indian Standard Time (IST)?

• IST – It is India's standard time reference maintained by the CSIR–National Physical Laboratory (CSIR-NPL), the country's National Metrology Institute.
• The new framework seeks to ensure that organisational systems use time traceable to IST rather than relying on multiple independent or foreign time sources.

Time traceability means that the time maintained by an organisation or device can be reliably linked to the national reference maintained by CSIR-NPL.

• Enforcement – Department of Legal Metrology.
• This enables IST to be disseminated and realised at multiple locations while maintaining traceability to the national reference maintained by CSIR-NPL
• Purpose – To make IST the country’s common legal time reference for commercial and other purposes, including the display of time.

How much accuracy do different systems need?

• NTP (Network Time Protocol) – Millisecond-level accuracy; suitable for ordinary applications.
• PTP (Precision Time Protocol) – Microsecond-level accuracy; useful for high-precision local networks.
• Satellite links – It is used for highly precise time transfer.
• Optical fibre links – It can provide extremely high precision.
• NavIC – Provides an indigenous satellite-based source of time traceable to IST.

NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), developed by ISRO, designed to provide accurate position, velocity, and timing service.

Why is a Common National Time Reference Important?

• Synchronisation of Critical Infrastructure – A common time reference is essential for synchronising:
  • Banking and financial systems
  • Telecommunications
  • Railways
  • Power grids
  • Digital networks
  • Defence systems
  • Space missions
• Even small differences in timestamps can affect coordination and the reconstruction of events.
• Cybersecurity – The consistent timestamps help in tracking and reconstructing cyber incidents.
• They can improve authentication, logging and forensic investigation.
• Reduce external dependence – A common national time source can reduce dependence on potentially vulnerable external timing systems.
• Financial Sector – For accurate and synchronised time is important for Digital payments, financial transactions, Fraud investigation, Audit trails etc.
• Legal and Law-Enforcement Applications – Accurate time can help investigators and courts reconstruct the sequence of events.
• Critical Infrastructure Resilience – Synchronised timing can improve coordination and resilience of systems where precise sequencing is essential.
  • Example: power grids, telecom networks and transport systems.

Why Reduce Dependence on Foreign Timing Sources?

• Strategic Concerns – Depending on foreign satellite navigation systems are not under India's control.
• Susceptibility – External systems could potentially be degraded, disrupted or denied.
• Risk for critical systems – Dependence on foreign timing infrastructure can create vulnerabilities for critical systems.

How applications vary based on time accuracy?

• Ordinary digital applications – Millisecond-level accuracy through NTP may be sufficient.
• Banking & finance – Require reliable and synchronised timestamps.
• Defence and critical infrastructure – It require higher precision.
• Space applications – It may require nanosecond-level traceability.
• Advanced optical links – It can achieve extremely high precision.

What are the challenges in implementation?

• Legacy Infrastructure – Older systems may not be designed to synchronise with approved IST sources.
• Multiple Timing Sources – Organisations currently rely on diverse sources such as GPS, foreign NTP servers and independent data-centre clocks.
• Cost of Upgradation – Critical sectors may require investment in advanced timing infrastructure.
• Enforcement – Ensuring compliance across India's large and diverse digital ecosystem will require effective monitoring mechanisms.
• Clock Drift – Clocks and oscillators naturally drift after synchronisation, requiring periodic correction.
• Balancing Precision and Cost – Not every application requires nanosecond-level accuracy; standards must therefore remain risk- and application-based.

What is the way forward?

• Build Indigenous Timing Infrastructure – Strengthen CSIR-NPL's primary time and frequency standards and develop advanced indigenous atomic clocks.
• Expand IST Dissemination – Strengthen NTP services, PTP networks, Satellite-based dissemination, Optical links, NavIC-based timing.
• Prioritise Critical Sectors – Initially focus on sectors where timing errors can have systemic consequences, such as:
  • Defence to Power to Telecom to Finance to Railways to Space
• Promote Interoperability – Ensure that different government and private-sector systems can seamlessly synchronise with approved IST sources.
• Strengthen Cyber Resilience – Develop redundant and secure timing sources so that disruption of one system does not compromise national time synchronisation.
• Create Awareness and Technical Capacity – Provide technical guidance and support to organisations for migration towards IST-traceable systems.

Reference

The Indian Express| Legal Enforcement of Indian Standard Time (IST)

India and the China–US Technology Race

Why in News?

The global technology race is entering a new phase, with China and the United States competing to integrate artificial intelligence (AI), scientific research and industrial production.

What is China’s Science-Industrial Strategy?

• Merging as a Superpower – China is attempting to transform itself from a manufacturing power into a global science and technology superpower.
• Its strategy focuses on developing “new quality productive forces”, with AI at the centre.
• China seeks to integrate AI into the physical economy, including, Robotics and machine tools, Automobiles and advanced manufacturing, Biotechnology and new materials, Energy and agriculture and Scientific research and drug discovery
• China’s major advantage is its deep manufacturing ecosystem. Having spent decades absorbing and improving foreign technologies, it is now attempting to move from technological adaptation to original innovation and scientific discovery.
• The underlying logic is straightforward:

AI → faster scientific discovery → new technologies → industrial transformation → greater economic and geopolitical power.

• China has also significantly increased its R&D expenditure, demonstrating that scientific capability is being treated as an important component of national power.

What is the strategy of The United States?

• Reconnecting Science with Manufacturing – The United States begins from a different position.
• It possesses some of the world's leading universities, research laboratories, technology companies and financial markets. However, decades of globalisation shifted significant manufacturing capacity overseas.
• This created a gap between innovation and production.
• American companies could design advanced technologies domestically while depending on global supply chains, particularly for manufacturing.
• The pandemic, China's technological rise and growing geopolitical competition exposed the vulnerabilities of this model.
• Consequently, the US is attempting to rebuild domestic manufacturing capacity and reconnect scientific research, technological innovation and industrial production.
• Thus, the two countries are approaching the same objective from opposite directions:

China: Manufacturing strength → advanced science and original innovation

United States: Scientific strength → advanced manufacturing and resilient supply chains

What Is the Nature of the China–US Technology Race?

• The competition is fundamentally about creating an integrated science-industrial ecosystem.
• The decisive advantage will increasingly depend on how effectively a country can connect:

Research institutions + skilled talent + private capital + technology + energy + manufacturing + supply chains + markets.

• AI is important because it can accelerate scientific discovery, improve industrial productivity and reduce the time between an idea and its commercial application.
• Therefore, technological leadership is increasingly becoming a determinant of economic competitiveness, national security and geopolitical influence.

What are the Major Structural Weakness of India?

• Inadequate Investment in R&D – India's expenditure on research and development remains significantly below that of major technological powers.
• According to the figures cited in the passage, India's R&D expenditure is around 0.64% of GDP, compared with approximately 2.8% in China and 3.5% in the United States.
• More importantly, Indian private capital has not yet developed a sustained commitment to basic research, frontier technologies and long-term scientific capacity.
• This represents a departure from India's earlier industrial tradition.
• Indian philanthropists and industrialists played an important role in establishing institutions such as the Indian Institute of Science and supporting pioneering scientific research.
• Greater private participation in science and research is required once again.
• Lack of Deep Institutional Reform – India's scientific institutions have not undergone reforms comparable to those undertaken by China since the late 1970s.
• The Indian scientific system continues to face problems such as, excessive bureaucratization, slow decision-making, limited institutional autonomy, inadequate research funding, weak university–industry linkages.
• Difficulty in attracting and retaining global scientific talent, Limited incentives for high-risk, long-term research.
• The Problem of Scientific Temper – echnological progress cannot be sustained merely through declarations of civilisational or technological superiority. Scientific advancement requires evidence, experimentation, critical inquiry, peer review and openness to questioning established ideas.
• India's scientific policy must therefore strengthen scientific temper rather than allow mythology or political rhetoric to substitute for empirical research.
• India's confidence should come not from claiming that every modern scientific achievement existed in the past, but from creating the conditions for future Indian contributions to global science.

What India could do?

• Increase R&D Expenditure – India should progressively raise public and private R&D expenditure towards levels comparable with major technological economies, with greater emphasis on basic and frontier research.
• Mobilise Private Capital – Large Indian corporations, philanthropies and venture capital funds should be encouraged to invest in long-term scientific research and deep technology.
• Tax incentives, research grants, challenge funds and public–private partnerships can encourage such investment.
• Reform Scientific Institutions – Scientific institutions require greater autonomy, accountability and flexibility in recruitment, funding and research collaboration.
• Performance evaluation should focus more on research quality and long-term impact rather than procedural compliance.
• Strengthen University–Industry Linkages – India needs stronger connections between universities, laboratories, startups and industry so that scientific discoveries can move efficiently from the laboratory to the marketplace.
• Attract and Retain Talent – India should create competitive research environments, improve research infrastructure and provide greater opportunities for young scientists to pursue ambitious projects.
• Develop Strategic Technologies – Greater attention should be given to AI, semiconductors, quantum computing, biotechnology, advanced materials, robotics, clean energy and other technologies that will shape future economic and strategic power.
• Build a Robust Manufacturing Ecosystem – India must complement its software and services strengths with greater capabilities in advanced manufacturing, electronics, machinery and strategic supply chains.
• Self-Reliance Must Not Mean Isolation – India must also avoid repeating the mistakes associated with excessive technological isolation.
• Technological self-reliance should not mean cutting India off from global knowledge and innovation.
• Instead, India needs a dual strategy:

Global integration + domestic capability building

• India should, Deepen collaboration with global universities and research institutions.
• Attract international technology and venture capital.
• Encourage global companies to establish advanced manufacturing and R&D facilities in India.
• Facilitate international mobility of researchers and scientific talent.
• Simultaneously strengthen domestic research institutions and manufacturing capabilities.
• Develop resilient domestic supply chains in strategic technologies.
• Such an approach would combine the benefits of globalisation with the requirements of strategic autonomy.

What lies ahead?

• For Viksit Bharat 2047, technological self-reliance should not mean technological isolation. India must build an ecosystem where knowledge leads to innovation, innovation leads to production, and production generates prosperity and strategic strength.
• The goal should not merely be to participate in the China–US technology race, but to develop an independent and globally competitive Indian science-industrial system.

Reference

The Indian Express| India& US –China Technological Race

Fossil Corals from Galápagos

Why in News?

A landmark paleoclimatological study by researchers from the University of Michigan has analyzed a 1,000-year archive preserved in fossil corals from the Galápagos Islands.

Key Highlights of the Study

• Researchers sampled core records from 13 coral colonies including living structures and ancient fossilized coral boulders in the Galápagos archipelago to reconstruct ocean temperature variations.
• The study revealed that El Niño events have intensified by nearly 36% over the past 40 years compared to pre-industrial baselines (~1850).
• El Niño events over the past 4 decades (including major events in 1982–83 and 1997–98) are roughly 36% stronger than during the pre-industrial era, exceeding any natural variability seen over the last 1,000 years.
• The data demonstrates that the strength of El Niño events changes in direct parallel with rising global surface temperatures.
• Climate model simulations revealed that natural internal climate processes alone could not account for such a massive shift in intensity during the recent 40-year window.

Scientific Context

• Corals as Natural Thermometers- Massive corals grow by 1 to 2 centimetres annually by secreting layers of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
• The chemical composition of these layers preserves an accurate record of seawater temperature and salinity at the time of growth.
• Galápagos as Ground Zero - The Galápagos Islands are located in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, where El Niño's sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies and upwelling disruptions exert their maximum physical impact.
• ENSO Disruption - Under normal conditions, equatorial trade winds push warm surface waters westward toward Australia.
• During El Niño, these trade winds weaken, causing warm water to shift back eastward toward South America, altering global atmospheric circulation and driving extreme weather worldwide.

Reference

Down To Earth | Climate change is strengthening El Niño

GOBARdhan Scheme

Why in News?

The GOBARdhan Central Sector Scheme (National Circular Bioenergy Scheme), carrying a total financial outlay of Rs.23,731 crore, officially came into effect on September 1, 2026.

• Full Form- Galvanizing Organic Bio-Agro Resources Dhan.
• Aim - To scale up the production and use of Compressed Biogas (CBG) in India.
• The scheme marks a national push to transform agricultural residue, cattle dung, press mud, and municipal organic waste into Compressed Biogas (CBG) and organic manure.
• Implementation Period - Financial year 2026–27 to 2035–36.
• Nodal Ministry - Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG).
• Production Scale Target - Aims to increase India's domestic Compressed Biogas (CBG) production nearly 10-fold.
• Six Growth Engines Framework
  • Assured CBG Offtake - Mandated offtake mechanisms to guarantee off-takers for produced biogas.
  • Stable Pricing Framework - Establishes a government-backed administered CBG price of Rs.2,110 per MMBTU (Metric Million British Thermal Unit).
  • Capital Assistance - Grants up to Rs.2 crore per ton per day (TPD) of installed CBG capacity for eligible greenfield projects, along with support for brownfield expansions.
  • Pipeline Infrastructure Support - Funding dedicated to cluster-based and standalone pipeline connectivity joining CBG facilities to City Gas Distribution (CGD) networks.
  • Credit Guarantee Support - Risk-sharing credit guarantees to lower collateral hurdles for MSME-based developers.
  • CBG Ecosystem Challenge Fund- Grants to drive local biomass mapping, technology adoption, and organic manure value-addition.

Reference

NewsOnAIR | GOBARdhan Central Sector Scheme

Rare Freshwater Swamps of the Western Ghats

Why in News?

The freshwater swamps of the Western Ghats, particularly the ancient Myristica swamps are facing severe habitat fragmentation and are on the cusp of extinction due to climate change.

• The swamps are dominated by ancient tree species of the family Myristicaceae (primitive flowering plants related to wild nutmeg), primarily Gymnacranthera canarica and Myristica fatua.
• Specialized Root Morphology
  • Pneumatophores (Breathing Roots) - Inverted U-shaped or knee-like roots projecting above waterlogged soil to facilitate gas exchange (O2/CO2) in anaerobic conditions.
  • Stilt / Prop Roots - Aerial roots sprouting from the lower trunk into unstable, soft mud, providing mechanical support against water currents.
• Pagoda Branching Architecture - Swamp trees exhibit tiered, horizontal whorls of branches radiating from a central trunk, optimizing sunlight capture beneath dense canopy layers.
• Biodiversity Haven- Supports over 600 faunal species, including rare endemic amphibians, reptiles (such as the Malabar pit viper and Gunther’s supple skink), endemic freshwater fishes, and rare medicinal flora.
• Fragmented Habitats - Once widespread along the Western Ghats these ancient freshwater swamps are now restricted to small, isolated patches like Shendurney, Kulathupuzha, and Anchal.
• Hydrological "Sponge" Function - Freshwater swamps act as natural landscape sponges, holding floodwaters during monsoon surges.
• It gradually releases water into forest streams during lean summer months to maintain perennial flow and groundwater recharge.
• High Carbon Sequestration - The swamps exhibit significantly higher biomass density and carbon storage capacity than adjacent non-swamp tropical evergreen forests, making them vital terrestrial carbon sinks.
• Agricultural Encroachment - Over recent decades, vast expanses of these low-lying swamp valleys have been drained and converted into paddy fields, cash crop plantations (areca nut, rubber, coffee, tea, teak), or lost to commercial infrastructure.
• Climate Vulnerability –
  • Shorter monsoon seasons,
  • Sudden flash floods, and
  • Extended summer dry spells severely disrupt seed germination and seedling survival rates, pushing swamp-specialist species toward localized extinction.

Reference

The Hindu | Rare freshwater swamps in the Western Ghats

Amoebic Meningoencephalitis in Kerala

Why in News?

A recent study has identified exposure to non-chlorinated domestic well water as a primary risk factor driving the surge of Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (AME) in Kerala.

Key Highlights of the Study

• Increased Odds of Infection- Individuals using untreated, non-chlorinated well water for bathing or washing their face face 2.95 times higher odds of contracting amoebic meningoencephalitis compared to unexposed populations.
• High Attributable Fraction- The study calculated a Population Attributable Fraction (PAF) of 34.2%, indicating that over a third of AME cases in the state are directly attributable to untreated well water exposure.
• Emergence of Acanthamoeba - While historical cases were predominantly Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) caused by Naegleria fowleri, recent case series in Kerala show a significant prevalence of Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis (GAE) caused by Acanthamoeba species.
• Drastic Mortality Reduction- Through early state-wide real-time PCR screening of all unspecified encephalitis cases and standardized protocols, Kerala has reduced the case fatality rate of AME to ~24%, compared to the global mortality average of over 90–99%.
• High Reliance on Well Infrastructure - Kerala's unique settlement patterns rely heavily on private open dug wells, where a lack of routine chlorination allows free-living amoebae to colonize bio-films in warm groundwater.

Reference

The Hindu | ICMR study identifies amoebic meningoencephalitis  

RBI Forex Swap Facility

Why in News?

The Reserve Bank of India's (RBI) special USD-INR swap window has attracted over $136 billion in foreign currency through FCNR(B) deposits, OFCBs, and ECBs, significantly exceeding initial projections.

FCNR(B) – Foreign Currency Non-Resident (Bank) Deposits

• Eligibility – Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCIs) may open accounts with authorised Indian banks.
• Currency – Deposits are maintained in designated foreign currencies such as USD, EUR, GBP, and JPY, rather than in Indian rupees.
• Tenure – The typical deposit period ranges from one to five years as a fixed deposit.
• Depositor risk – There is no exchange rate risk, as both principal and interest are repaid in the same foreign currency.
• Taxation and repatriation – Interest earned is tax-free in India for eligible non-residents, and both principal and interest are fully repatriable.

External Commercial Borrowings (ECB)

• Definition – It refer to loans obtained by Indian entities, including companies, Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), and occasionally Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs), from foreign lenders in foreign currency.
• Uses – ECBs are utilized for capital expenditure, refinancing of existing debt, and working capital requirements, subject to Reserve Bank of India (RBI) guidelines.

OFCB – Overseas Foreign Currency Borrowings

• OFCB – It refer to funds raised in foreign currencies by eligible Indian borrowers.
• Term overlaps with categories of External Commercial Borrowings and treated as an additional foreign currency inflow channel.
• RBI Mechanism – Currency introduced via OFCBs/ECBs may be swapped with Reserve Bank of India.

Reason for introducing RBI’s special USD-INR swap window

• Oil Prices – Increased crude oil imports result in higher demand for US dollars.
• Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) Exit – Heightened risk aversion and changes in global interest rates lead to equity outflows and a reduction in dollar liquidity.
• Dollar Shortage – Domestic foreign exchange demand exceeds available supply.
• Rupee Stress – The currency faces increased depreciation risk and heightened volatility in foreign exchange reserves.

Reference

The Hindu | Forex Swap Window

FAO Soil Resources Report 2026

Why in News?

Recently, the FAO has released a global assessment highlighting widespread soil degradation and its implications for food security, climate resilience, and sustainable agriculture.

Status of the World’s Soil Resources 2026

• Report released at – 17th Conference of Parties (COP17) of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
• Prepared under – FAO’s Global Soil Partnership and the Intergovernmental Technical Panel on Soils.

• Threats – Land-use change, intensive agriculture, pollution, pesticides, deforestation, urbanisation, climate change and soil disturbance.
• Ker recommendation from – FAO’s 2020 State of Knowledge of Soil Biodiversity report. It includes the
  • Adoption of sustainable soil management practices to minimise soil biodiversity loss,
  • Inclusion of biological indicators of soil health alongside physical and chemical indicators, and
  • Use of standardised sampling and analytical protocols.

Reference

Down to Earth | FAO Soil Resources Report 2026

Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) on Indus water Treaty

Why in News?

India has formally rejected an award issued by the Hague-based Court of Arbitration (CoA) constituted under the aegis of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), concerning the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).

• Rejection of CoA Award - India categorically rejected the arbitration that sought to set aside New Delhi’s decision to suspend the treaty, as well as interim measures targeting construction activity at the Ratle Hydroelectric Project.
• Abeyance Order - India placed the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty in abeyance following security developments and cross-border terrorism (including the 2025 Pahalgam terror attack), linking transboundary water cooperation directly to national security.
• Parallel Proceedings Violation - In 2016, Pakistan sought a Court of Arbitration while India requested a Neutral Expert to resolve technical differences over the Kishenganga and Ratle projects.
• India contends that initiating simultaneous proceedings violates the mandatory sequential process of the treaty.
• Boycott of Tribunal - India has consistently boycotted the CoA, maintaining that its appointment by the World Bank breached the treaty and that New Delhi has never recognized its legal existence.
• Focus Projects - The technical dispute centers on the Kishenganga (330 MW) on a Jhelum tributary and the Ratle (850 MW) project on the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir.

Dispute Resolution under IWT (1960)

• Water Allocation
  • Eastern Rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej): Allocated to India for unrestricted, exclusive usage.
  • Western Rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab): Allocated to Pakistan, though India is permitted non-consumptive uses, including run-of-the-river hydroelectric power generation under specified design limits.
• 3-Tier Graded Dispute Resolution Mechanism (Article IX)
  • Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) - Bilateral body of commissioners handling routine operational issues and initial queries.
  • Neutral Expert (NE)- Appointed for technical "differences" (such as pondage capacity, spillway gates, and intake levels).
  • Court of Arbitration (CoA) - Convened only for formal legal "disputes" when technical channels are exhausted or both parties consent.

Reference

Hindustan Times | India rejects Indus Waters Treaty award

Sandalwood

Why in News?

The Union Budget 2026–27 highlighted sandalwood (Santalum album) as an important part of India's social and cultural heritage.

• Biological Nature – This species is a hemi-root parasite that relies on host plants for water and nutrients.
  • Selection of unsuitable host plants can result in stunted growth, chlorosis, and increased mortality.
  • For example, Malabar neem produces dense shade, which suppresses the growth of sandalwood.
  • Melia trees are often harvested for plywood, which further reduces the sandalwood’s vigour.
• Climate‑Smart Traits – This is a high-value and resilient tree species.
  • It exhibits tolerance to salinity and drought, is hardy, possesses a light crown, requires minimal nutrients, and adapts to a range of soil types.
• Agroforestry Integration – This species is well-suited for block plantations, boundary plantings, and mixed cropping systems.
  • Compatible host species include gooseberry, mango, custard apple, and legumes such as red gram.
  • Cultivation of this species can increase farm incomes and enhance environmental resilience.
• Geographical spread – Cultivation has moved beyond traditional Southern belts to Telangana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of northern India.

Sandalwood Development Committee

Constituted by – Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister and Union government think tank NITI Aayog, Chaired by – Finance Secretary Representatives – Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate Change, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Ayush, National Medicinal Plants Board of the Government of India are members of this committee. Representatives of the Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Bengaluru. Forest College & Research Institute of the Tamil Nadu Agriculture University are also represented in this committee.

Reference

Down to Earth | Sandalwood Reborn

India’s Hub-and-Spoke Aviation Model: “Easy Connect”

Why in News?

India has launched the first phase of a hub-and-spoke aviation strategy to make international travel easier for passengers from Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities.

• Hub-and-spoke model – Under the system, smaller airports, known as "spokes", are connected to larger hub airports such as Delhi. 
• Passengers travelling abroad can begin their journey from a smaller city and connect seamlessly to international flights through the hub airport.
• Launched by – Ministry of Civil Aviation  

• Objectives
• Enhance international connectivity – Facilitate direct connections between Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities and international destinations.
• Minimize reliance on foreign transit hubs – At present, approximately 35% of international passengers from India transit through foreign hubs including Dubai, London, and Singapore.
• Establish India as a global aviation hub – India's geographic position between Europe and East Asia offers a significant strategic advantage.
• Optimize the utilization of existing airport infrastructure – Increase the operational efficiency of regional airports developed under the UDAN scheme.

Reference

Economic Times | Hub and Spoke Model

Fishing on Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Prelims: Current events of national and international importance | Economy

Why in News?

Recently SC clarified that Purse seine nets allowed only beyond 12 nm in EEZ under Centre’s regulation, prohibited within 0–12 nm territorial waters under State control.

• Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) – It is an area of the ocean, generally extending 200 nautical miles (230 miles) beyond a nation’s territorial sea, within which a coastal nation has jurisdiction over both living and non-living resources.
• It was adopted through the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
• Under international law, within its defined EEZ, a coastal nation has:
• Sovereign Rights – Explore, exploit, conserve, and manage the seabed, subsoil, and waters.
• Jurisdiction – Artificial islands, research, marine environment protection.

• Relevant Legal Framework
• Tamil Nadu Marine Fishing Regulation Rules, 2020 – It governs fishing activities within 12 nautical miles, corresponding to state waters.
• Sustainable Harnessing of Fisheries in the EEZ Rules, 2025 (EEZ Rules, 2025) – It regulates fishing in the Exclusive Economic Zone (12 to 200 nautical miles) under central government jurisdiction.
• Marine Products Export Development Authority Act, 1972 (MPEDA Act, 1972) – It establishes registration requirements for export-oriented and regulated fishing operations.
• The Court determined that there is no conflict between the 2020 state rules and the 2025 central EEZ rules, as each applies to a distinct maritime zone.

Purse Seine Fishing – A commercial fishing method that uses a large wall of netting to encircle a dense school of pelagic fish, closing at the bottom like a drawstring purse to trap the catch.

Reference

Indian Express | Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

SCO Bishkek Declaration 2026

Why in News?

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

• Formation - A permanent intergovernmental international organisation founded in June 2001 in Shanghai, China.
• Genesis - Evolved from the 'Shanghai Five' mechanism (China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) that was established in 1996 for border demilitarization and security.
• Charter - The SCO Charter was signed in June 2002 and entered into force in September 2003.

Key Highlights of the Bishkek Declaration 2026

• Regional Security and Counter-Terrorism
  • Combating the 'Three Evils' - The declaration reaffirmed the uncompromising commitment to jointly fight Terrorism, Separatism, and Extremism.
  • SCO-RATS Enhancement - Member states emphasized strengthening the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (SCO-RATS) as a pivotal mechanism for intelligence sharing and unified operations.
  • Stability in Afghanistan- SCO called for the establishment of an inclusive government in Afghanistan as vital for regional security, emphasizing the territory should not become a sanctuary for terror outfits.
  • Drug Trafficking and Cybercrime - Identified the illicit drug trade (originating from the Golden Crescent) and misuse of information technologies for radicalization as priority security challenges requiring immediate collaborative action.

• Economic Connectivity and Development
  • Multilateral Trade Facilitation- Focus on deepening economic cooperation, reducing non-tariff barriers, and utilizing national currencies for trade settlements to mitigate dependency on the US Dollar.
  • Transport and Energy Corridors - Prioritized the development of robust regional transport networks, infrastructure (like the International North-South Transport Corridor), and energy grids to foster integration.
• Multilateralism and UN Reform
  • Upholding International Law- Championed a multipolar world order based on the principles of the UN Charter, sovereignty, and non-interference in internal affairs.
  • Rejecting Unilateralism - Firmly opposed unilateral economic sanctions that violate international law and disrupt global supply chains.
  • Reforming the UN- Emphasized the comprehensive reform of the United Nations, including the Security Council, to ensure it reflects contemporary realities.

India’s Stance and Contribution at the Summit

• Focus on 'SECURE' Concept – PM reiterated India's visionary 'SECURE' formula: Security, Economic development, Connectivity, Unity, Respect for sovereignty, and Environmental protection.
• Connectivity with Sovereignty - India, while supporting regional connectivity, maintained its consistent refusal to endorse China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) due to violations of Indian territorial integrity and sovereignty.
• Focus on DPI and Tech - Highlighted India's leadership in developing scalable, low-cost Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) to foster financial inclusion in other SCO states.
• Tackling Pakistan and China on Terror- Strongly reiterated India's demand to cease state-sponsored cross-border terrorism and oppose 'double standards' in labeling terrorists.

Reference

Indian Express | What does the Bishkek Declaration say?

Article 142 – Quashing of FIRs

Why in News?

The Supreme Court invoked Article 142 to quash FIRs/criminal proceedings against Gen Z protesters involved in protests linked to the NEET-UG 2026 question paper leak.

Constitutional Provision

• Article 142 Clause (1) – Authority to Ensure Complete Justice and Nationwide Enforcement
  • Power – In any pending cause or matter, the Supreme Court may issue any decree or order deemed necessary to achieve complete justice.
  • Enforcement – Any such decree or order is enforceable across the entire territory of India.
  • Mode of enforcement – The method of enforcement is determined by Parliament; until such legislation is enacted, it is prescribed by the President.
• Article 142 Clause (2) - Procedural and Contempt Powers Applicable Nationwide.
• Subject to any law enacted by Parliament on the matter, the Supreme Court possesses, for the entirety of India, the authority to issue orders for the following purposes:
  • Securing the attendance of any individual;
  • Facilitating the discovery or production of documents;
  • Conducting investigations into, or imposing punishment for, contempt of the Supreme Court.

• Limitations –
• Constitutional Limitation – Orders issued under Article 142 cannot supersede the Constitution or infringe upon fundamental rights.
• Supplementary Function – It may address legal lacunae but cannot substitute or amend statutory provisions.
• Principles of Natural Justice – Directions must uphold the rights of non-parties and adhere to fair-hearing standards.
• Public Policy Alignment – It must be consistent with fundamental public policy considerations.
• Exceptional Application – It should be invoked only in extraordinary circumstances and not as a matter of routine.

Reference

Indian Express| SC Scraps All FIRs Against NEET Protesters

Universal Eight-Note Acoustic Alphabet of Bird Songs

Why in News?

A landmark study has revealed that despite the extraordinary diversity of avian vocalizations across the globe every bird song is constructed from a fundamental 8-note acoustic "alphabet" (core motifs).

Key Highlights of the Study

• Researchers analyzed over 116,000 song recordings from 3,160 passerine species (perching birds or songbirds) sourced from global citizen-science sound databases like Xeno-canto.
• They used Modulation Power Spectrum (MPS) for each recording reducing complex acoustic signals to underlying patterns of frequency and temporal modulation mapped within a 37-dimensional acoustic space.
• Acoustic signatures across all species universally clustered around 8 primary poles, demonstrating that bird song diversity operates through modular combinations of these eight building blocks.
• Individual songbird species typically incorporate an average of 5 out of the 8 motifs into their song repertoire, with 65.3% of species relying on a single dominant motif for more than 80% of their vocalizations.

The Eight Core Acoustic Motifs

1. Slow Trill - Repetition of the same pitch/note at a relaxed pace.
2. Fast Trill- Medium-speed repeated pitch bursts.
3. Ultrafast Trill- Rapid-fire repetition of notes.
4. Flat Whistle- Sustained single pitch without modulation, ideal for long-distance propagation.
5. Slow-Modulated Whistle- Whistle with gradual pitch variations.
6. Fast-Modulated Whistle- Rapidly shifting pitch frequency.
7. Atonal Chaotic Notes - Harsh, rough, noise-like acoustic bursts lacking defined pitch.
8. Harmonic Stacks- Simultaneous layering of low- and high-pitched tones (e.g., characteristic calls of corvids/crows).

Acoustic Adaptation Hypothesis

•  
• Birds communicating over long distances or through dense tropical canopy (e.g., Southeast Asian rainforests) rely on simpler motifs like flat whistles and slow trills that resist reverberation and physical barrier distortion.
• Birds in open habitats or communicating at close range favor complex, fast-modulated motifs (ultrafast trills and harmonic stacks) that carry high information density.
• Larger birds produce simpler, lower-frequency motifs, whereas smaller species generate faster, highly complex acoustic variations.
• Species subjected to intense sexual selection and female choice employ significantly more complex motif combinations compared to those under weaker mating competition.

Reference

The Hindu | A hidden eight-note alphabet

Striped Hyenas and India's Clean

Why in News?

A recent report underscores the ecological service provided by the striped hyena in removing livestock and wildlife carcasses across India's open grasslands and human-dominated rural landscapes.

Key Highlights of the Species

• Sanitation & Disease Vector Control - Striped hyenas act as primary scavengers, clearing decaying carcasses and organic waste that would otherwise harbor pathogens causing diseases like anthrax, rabies, and bovine tuberculosis.
• Bone-Cracking Adaptation - Powerful jaws and specialized dentition enable them to crack and consume heavy bones, recycling essential minerals (like calcium and phosphorus) back into the soil matrix.
• High Gastric Acidity - Highly acidic stomach juices (elevated levels of hydrochloric acid) allow hyenas to digest putrid, microbe-laden flesh without contracting infections.
• Generational Denning Behavior - Unlike many sympatric carnivores, hyenas utilize long-term, multi-generational subterranean burrows, caves, and rock crevices for raising cubs and sheltering during daylight hours.

Threats

• Cultural Myths & Superstitions - Frequently demonized in rural folklore as evil omens, "steeds of witches," or grave robbers, leading to deliberate persecution and retaliatory poisoning.
• Loss of "Wasteland" Grasslands- Open natural ecosystems (ONEs) and semi-arid scrublands are frequently classified as "wastelands," leading to rapid land diversion for real estate, solar parks, and industrial corridors.
• Persecution & Linear Infrastructure- High mortality rates from vehicle collisions on highways traversing scrubland habitats, open agricultural wells, and stray dog pack aggression.

Striped Hyena

Reference

The Hindu | Striped hyenas help keep India clean