Existence of Untouchability in India

Why in News?

As per the report, provided by NCRB, 24 cases of untouchability against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955 are reported for the year 2023.

What is untouchability?

• Historical background – Untouchability is a deeply entrenched social practice, primarily in South Asia's caste system that segregates, humiliates, and exploits certain groups (Dalits).
•  It is denying the certain groups with basic human dignity, equal opportunities in education, work, and public spaces, and enforcing exclusion through ritual pollution beliefs.
• Definition – The Constitution of India does not define “untouchability,” nor is it clear what constitutes its “practice in any form” or “a disability arising out of ‘untouchability’.
• The English term “untouchability” is of relatively recent coinage; its first appearance in print was in 1909 and, while it gained wide currency, it did not gain clarity.

What are the key aspects of untouchability?

• Caste-Based Discrimination – It's rooted in the Hindu caste hierarchy, placing Dalits at the bottom, historically assigned "polluting" tasks like sanitation, leatherwork, and waste disposal.
• Social Exclusion – Involves denying access to temples, shared wells, schools, and even physical touch, forcing separate living areas.
• Economic Exploitation – Keeps Dalit communities in poverty, limiting access to land, resources, and fair wages.
• Humiliation & Violence – Manifests as pervasive discrimination, verbal abuse, and physical atrocities, with severe consequences.

What are the protections available against untouchability?

• Constitutional resolve – Article 17 of the Constitution of India abolished 'untouchability', forbade its practice and made enforcement of any disability arising out of 'untouchability', a punishable offence in accordance with law.
• Legal protections – An Act of Parliament namely the "Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955 prescribes punishment for enforcement of any disability arising from the practice of 'untouchability'.
• The Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) {PoA} Act, 1989, was enacted to prevent atrocities against members of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
• The SC/ST (PoA) Act, 1989 was amended in the year of 2016 and 2018 respectively and the Rules made thereunder were also revised.
• Institutional arrangements – At the Central level, a Committee under the Chairpersonship of the Union Minister for Social Justice and Empowerment,  reviews the implementation status of the Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) (PoA) Act, 1989, in States and Union Territories.
• Central-state coordination – The Department also holds regular meetings with the State Governments and Union Territory Administrations to monitor the implementation of the PCR Act, 1955 and the SC/ST (PoA) Act, 1989.
• State Governments/UT administrations are advised to ensure prevention of discrimination on the basis of caste of any person and implement these Acts in letter and spirit.
• Advisories to states – The Government of India, from time to time, has been issuing Advisories to State Governments/UT Administrations for effective implementation of Protection of Civil Rights (PCR) Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.
• Misuse has been reported by States who act as per relevant legal provisions.

What are the impediments in eradicating untouchability?

• Deep-rooted Social and Cultural Prejudices – Untouchability is intrinsically linked to the rigid and centuries-old caste system, which fosters a sense of superiority among so-called "higher" castes and an internalized sense of inferiority among Dalits.
• Changing these entrenched attitudes, norms, and social codes of conduct is a slow process that existing laws alone have not been able to fully achieve.
• Economic Dependence and Exploitation – A significant number of Dalits continue to be economically vulnerable and reliant on higher castes, particularly in rural areas.
• They are often forced into stigmatized, "impure" occupations like manual scavenging, which perpetuates their low social status.
• Efforts to secure land rights or fair wages are often met with retaliatory violence and economic boycotts, making it difficult to achieve economic independence.
• Ineffective Implementation of Laws and Institutional Bias – Despite strong legal frameworks like Article 17 of the Indian Constitution, the Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955, and the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, their enforcement is often weak.
• There is a significant gap between the legal provisions and the ground reality due to a lack of political will, corruption, and systemic biases within the law enforcement and judicial machinery.
• This is evidenced by low conviction rates and the large number of pending cases.
• Residential Segregation – Dalits often live in segregated areas or slums outside the main village precincts (known as Maharwadas), which reinforces social distance and exclusion from public amenities like common wells, temples, and roads.
• Lack of Education and Awareness – Many Dalits, particularly in rural areas, lack access to quality education, which is a key tool for social mobility and empowerment.
• Furthermore, a general lack of awareness about their rights among the marginalized, and a lack of sensitivity among the general population, contribute to the persistence of discrimination.
• Caste-Based Politics – Political parties sometimes exploit caste identities for electoral gains, which further perpetuates caste divisions and hinders a unified approach to social reform.
• Persistence of Specific Practices – Specific forms of discrimination continue, such as separate utensils for Dalits in tea stalls, denial of entry to temples and homes, and social boycotts for defying customary "duties".

What are the social solutions to eradicate untouchability?

• Inclusive Education – Providing common and liberal education for all children in shared schools and hostels helps break down caste barriers from a young age.
• The curriculum should promote critical thinking about social injustices and include the history of anti-caste movements and reformers.
• Inter-caste Interaction – Encouraging frequent interaction, shared dining, and social events between different caste groups, including on religious and national occasions, helps reduce prejudice and fosters a sense of unity and brotherhood.
• Community Vigilance – Establishing local vigilance committees with representation from all communities to monitor and report instances of discrimination in public spaces.
• Media and Awareness Campaigns – Relentless propaganda through mass media (radio, TV, social media) and local communication can challenge stereotypes, celebrate success stories of inter-caste harmony, and emphasize equality as a constitutional duty and human right.
• Rehabilitation of Occupations – Efforts to emancipate marginalized communities from "dirty" or stigmatized occupations (such as manual scavenging) through skill development and dignified alternative employment opportunities are crucial for social standing and economic independence.

What are the cultural way forward?

• Challenging Religious Orthodoxy – Engaging with religious and spiritual leaders to interpret faith in an egalitarian light and publicly denounce untouchability can help counter the traditional justifications for caste-based discrimination.
• Promoting Inter-caste Marriages – Actively encouraging and providing support (legal, security, and financial) for inter-caste marriages is a powerful tool for uniting families across caste lines and dismantling the very foundation of the caste system.
• Cultural Assertion and Self-Respect Movements – Supporting movements that build self-esteem and identity among marginalized groups is vital.
• This includes promoting their unique cultural heritage, literature, and history (e.g., Dalit literature, the Self-Respect Movement) to counter the sense of inferiority imposed by the caste system.
• Equal Access to Public/Religious Spaces – Ensuring that all public spaces, including temples, wells, and cremation grounds, are accessible to everyone is a symbolic and practical step toward dismantling physical manifestations of untouchability.
• Civic Education – Integrating the values of the constitution, human rights principles, and the lives of social reformers (like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi) into education and community dialogues can inspire commitment to an inclusive society.

Reference

1. PIB| Existence of Untouchability
2. The Hindu| Atrocities Against Dalits

Aviation Safety – The FDTL Crisis and India’s Regulatory Malaise

Why in News?

The recent turmoil in India’s aviation sector triggered by mass flight cancellations by private airline IndiGo and followed by a controversial government response has raised serious concerns about the state of aviation safety.

What is the issue?          

• Large scale flight cancellation – Starting on December 2, IndiGo flights were delayed and cancelled due to apparent pilot shortages.
• Flight disruptions were recorded in New Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad and other cities.
• On December 5, at least 1,600 flights were cancelled in one of the worst aviation crises in India.
• Noncompliance with new regulation – Early last year, the government announced new flight regulations, called the Flight Duty Time Limitations or FDTL – to improve the working hours of the Indian airlines’ pilots.
• However, when the November 1 deadline arrived, IndiGo airline was not prepared.
• As a result, it was first forced to delay and later cancel flights, as there were not enough pilots available

• The decision of the Minister of Civil Aviation to place Flight Duty Time Limitation (FDTL) orders “under abeyance” has renewed debates on regulatory integrity, crew fatigue, and the prioritisation of commercial interests over passenger safety.

What is FDTL Norms?

• FDTL – Flight Duty Time Limitation (FDTL) norms were introduced as a Civil Aviation Requirement (CAR) to ensure that pilots receive adequate rest and operate fatigue-free.
• Fatigue management is globally recognised as a non-negotiable element of flight safety.
• Despite this, the DGCA appealed to pilots’ bodies to cooperate and simultaneously hinted at diluting FDTL requirements.
• This appears to be aimed at easing operational pressures on IndiGo, which failed to plan for upcoming regulatory changes.
• Such actions cast doubt on the regulator’s commitment to safety and create an impression that commercial interests have overshadowed passenger welfare.
• New Norms – FDTL was finally implemented in two phases this year, and the rules include:
  • Increasing pilots’ mandatory weekly rest period from 36 to 48 hours.
  • A pilot’s personal leave request, however, cannot be included under the mandatory rest period.
  • Capping pilots’ flying hours that continue into the night to 10 hours.
  • Capping the weekly number of landings a pilot can make between midnight and early morning to 2.
  • Submitting quarterly pilots’ fatigue reports to the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).

What are the issues in abiding to FDTL norms?

• Historical Pattern – This is not the first instance of such regulatory backtracking.
• In 2007, the DGCA rolled out a robust CAR addressing crew fatigue.
• However, Airline owners protested to the Civil Aviation Ministry
• The Ministry ordered the DGCA to keep the CAR in abeyance
• In May 2008, DGCA officially suspended the CAR
• This pattern showcases a long-standing approach where aviation safety standards are subordinated to commercial pressures, even at the cost of risking passenger lives.
• Judicial Intervention and Its Contradictions – The 2008 suspension of CARs prompted pilots’ associations to approach the Bombay High Court.
• The high Court:
  • Condemned the government for endangering pilots and passengers
  • Described the decision as arbitrary and safety-compromising
  • Suggested reducing flights instead of stretching pilots’ duty hours
  • Emphasised that “safety has been overlooked to protect financial interests of airline operators”
• However, in a surprising reversal, the same High Court later upheld the Ministry’s action — further weakening regulatory enforcement.
• Failure of Planning – Both IndiGo and DGCA were fully aware that the new FDTL regime would come into force from November 1, 2025.
• In spite of that:
  • No adequate preparation was undertaken
  • No additional pilots were recruited despite clear requirements
  • Resulted in mass cancellations and nationwide chaos
  • Passengers may get ticket refunds, but the losses due to hotel stays, rescheduled travel, and personal disruptions remain unaddressed.
• Violation of Minimum Crew Requirements – DGCA’s own CAR (Series C, Part II, 2022) mandates:
  • At least 3 sets of crew per aircraft under regular employment
    But in reality:
  • A minimum of 6 sets of pilots are needed even under existing FDTL rules
  • 12 sets are needed for long-haul wide-body operations
  • Airlines have deliberately underemployed crew to cut costs, with IndiGo as a major violator
  • The absence of enforcement underscores regulatory capture and the failure of oversight.
• Lack of Accountability and Regulatory Capture – In 2006, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommended that India establish an independent aviation safety authority, free from government interference.
• Nearly two decades later, this recommendation has not been implemented.
• Recent actions — Including the December 5, 2025 abeyance order — highlight:
  • DGCA’s inability to enforce its own safety standards
  • Ministry’s willingness to override regulatory safeguards
  • Airlines’ confidence that violations will go unpunished
  • Even developing nations with weaker aviation systems rarely dilute safety norms to this extent.
• Recurring Tragedies and Unlearnt Lessons – India has witnessed three major aviation accidents since 2010:
  • Mangaluru (2010)
  • Kozhikode (2020)
  • Ahmedabad (AI 171 crash) — report still delayed
• Instead of strengthening regulatory systems post-accidents, the government’s recent moves indicate regression and misplaced priorities.

What lies ahead?

• The suspension of FDTL regulations and continued prioritisation of commercial interests reveal a fundamental flaw in India’s aviation governance.
• Regulatory dilution, absence of accountability, judiciary inconsistency, and weak oversight collectively threaten passenger safety.
• Unless India establishes an independent regulator and enforces strict compliance, aviation safety will remain a myth — and the skies will be navigated not by robust systems, but merely “on a wing and a prayer.”

Reference
The Hindu| FDTL norms and its Violation

Constituent Assembly of India

Why in news?

79 years ago, on December 9^th the Constituent Assembly held its first meeting.

• Proposed in– 1^st proposed in 1934 by M.N. Roy, a pioneering figure in the Indian Communist movement.
• Established in line with – Guidelines set forth by the Cabinet Mission Plan on 1946.
• Purpose – Formulate a Constitution for facilitating appropriate transfer of sovereign power from British authorities to Indian hands.
• 1^st Session – On December 9, 1946, met in the Constitution Hall in New Delhi, which is now known as the Central Hall of Parliament House.
• Dr. Sacchidananda Sinha was elected as the temporary Chairman of the Assembly.
• On 11^th December, 1946 - Elected President (Rajendra Prasad) & Vice-Presidents (VT Krishnamachari & HC Mookerji).
• Structure – It incorporating both elected and nominated members:
  • Elected Members - Representatives from the existing provincial legislatures were elected through a system of proportional representation.
  • Nominated Members - The various princely states appointed their representatives directly, resulting in nominated members for their seats.
• Diverse representation – Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Parsi, Anglo-Indian, Indian Christians, SCs/ STS, Backward Classes, and women belonging to all of these sections.
• Composition – Total membership of the Constituent Assembly is 389
  • 292 members elected by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
  • 93 members representing the Indian Princely States.
  • 4 members representing the Chief Commissioners’ Provinces.
• Partition Impact – By June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan led to the formation of a separate Constituent Assembly for Pakistan and the final tally for the Indian Constituent Assembly was reduced to 299.
• Duration – It took almost 3 years (2 years, 11 months, and 17 days) to draft the Constitution of India.
  • It held 11 sessions covering a total of 165 days, of these, 114 days were spent on the consideration of the Draft Constitution.
• Key leaders – Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr BR Ambedkar, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Acharya JB Kripalani, Dr Rajendra Prasad and Sarojini Naidu, etc.
• Adoption – Finally, the Constitution was adopted on November 26, 1949 with a Preamble, 395 Articles, and 8 Schedules.
• The Constitution came into force from January 26, 1950 which is celebrated as the Republic Day.

References

1. Indian Express | 79 years of first meeting of Constituent Assembly
2. Digital Sansad | Constituent Assembly

Solar Storm

Prelims: Current events of national and international importance | Science & Technology

Why in News?

India’s Aditya-L1, along with 6 U.S. satellites has revealed why the May 2024 solar storm also known as Gannon’s storm behaved so unusually.

The 6 U.S. satellites are NASA’s Wind, ACE, THEMIS-C, STEREO-A, MMS, and NASA-NOAA joint mission DSCOVR.

• Solar Storm – It is a sudden explosion of particles, energy, magnetic fields, and material blasted into the solar system by the Sun.
• Causes – The Sun’s magnetic fields get twisted, like messy hair.
• Because the Sun’s equator spins faster than its poles, the fields twist even more.
• When they get too stretched, they snap and reconnect (called magnetic reconnection), releasing huge bursts of energy — this is how solar storms start.
• Induce any or all the events – solar flare (bright flash of light), radiation storm (flurry of solar particles propelled into space at high speeds) and coronal mass ejection.
• Effects – Solar storms can shake up Earth’s magnetic field, causing geomagnetic storms.
• It may lead to radio blackouts, power cuts, and bright auroras in the sky.
• But they don’t directly harm people because Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere protect us.

Quick Fact

To know about Aditya L1, click here

References

1. The Hindu | Global effort reveals why the 2024 solar storm unusual
2. NASA | Solar Strom

Legalities involved in organ transplants

Why in News?

The transplantation of human organs has been one of the biggest advances in the medical sciences in the last century, India’s organ transplant system faces challenges that hinders donations.

• Organ donation - It is the generous act of giving healthy organs (like heart, kidneys, liver) or tissues (like corneas, skin, bone) from one person (the donor) to another (the recipient) whose own organs have failed.
• It will save the lives or restore the function, and can occur when the donor is living (e.g., a kidney) or deceased (after brain death).
• Governed by – Organ donation in India is legally regulated by the Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act (THOTA), 1994.
• By promoting voluntary, non-commercial donation after death (brain stem or cardiac) and from living donors (kidney, liver portion).
• Managed by – National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organization (NOTTO).
• Types of Transplants (this Act deals with both) —
  • Transplants from deceased persons – Organs have to be removed from a person whose brainstem is irreversibly damaged but vital organs are functioning.
  • Live donations – Functioning organ is removed from a healthy person and transplanted to another human being.
• India’s Low Donation Rates
  • India (2023) – Only 0.77 per million.
  • Impact – About half a million Indians die every year in need of transplantation.
• Brainstem Death Certification
  • Definition – Brainstem death is the stage at which all functions of the brain-stem have permanently and irreversibly ceased and is so certified.
  • Legal Status – BSD certificates are valid death certificates under both the 1994 Act (equating it with cardiac death) and the Registration of Birth and Death Act, 1969.

Key Challenges

• Legal ambiguity – Confusion over BSD certification and dual death certificates.
• Consent barriers – Families often hesitate, reducing donor availability.
• Infrastructure limits – Only registered hospitals can certify BSD, shrinking the donor pool.
• Administrative hurdles – Doctor approval requirements discourage certification.

World Organ Donation Day is observed on 13^th August every year.

Indian Organ Donation Day – August 3 to commemorate the 1^st successful deceased heart transplant in India on 1994.

To know about National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO), Click here

References

The Hindu | Legalities involved in organ transplants in India

Tangail Saree

Why in News?

At the 20^th Session of the UNESCO Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, Bangladesh secured recognition for the Tangail saree weaving tradition.

• Origin – Tangail district in Bangladesh.
• Craftsmanship – Handwoven using cotton or silk, often featuring intricate floral or geometric motifs.
• Features – Lightweight, soft texture, elegant borders, and vibrant colors.

• Cultural Role – It is worn during festivals, weddings, and special occasions, symbolizing Bengali identity and artistry.
• Significance – It marks a long-standing goal for Bangladesh and provides global recognition to Tangail’s weavers, who have perfected the craft for over two centuries.
• India’s GI Tag (2024) –
  • India granted a Geographical Indication (GI) tag to “Tangail Saree of Bengal” in 2024.
  • Awarded to – West Bengal State Handloom Weavers Co-Operative Society Limited.
  • India justified the GI by citing decades of production in West Bengal by migrant weavers from Bangladesh.
  • Bangladesh criticized this, calling it an infringement of cultural heritage, since Tangail is geographically in Bangladesh.

To know about Intangible Cultural Heritage List of India, Click here

To know about India Hosts UNESCO’s 20th ICH Session, Click here

Reference

The Hindu | UNESCO’s ‘intangible heritage’ tag for Tangail saree

Deepavali added in UNESCO’s Representative list

Prelims: Current events of national and international importance | Art & Culture

Why in News?

India's Deepavali inscribed on the UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity recently.

• Deepavali is added to the UNESCO's Representative List under the social practices’ domain of Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.
• Deepavali or Diwali is a five-day Hindu festival, also known an Indian festival of lights.
• Meaning – ‘Deepa’ means lamp or light and ‘Vali’ means string or row, and Deepavali means rows of lights.
• Central theme – Triumph of good over evil.
• In North India – It celebrates the return of Lord Rama to his kingdom Ayodhya after 14 years of exile and his victory over the demon Ravana.
• In South India – It marks the day Lord Krishna and his wife Satyabhama defeated the demon Narakasura.
• Timing – It falls on Amavasya (new moon day) in October/November, based on lunar cycles.
• For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes.
• Day 1 (Dhanteras) – People buy jewelry or utensils and worship is offered to God for prosperity.
• Day 2 (Naraka Chaturdashi (Chhoti Diwali)) – It marks the death of demon king Narakasura.
• Homes are decorated with flowers and mango leaves and firecrackers are burst to drive away evil spirits.
• Day 3 – Diwali (Main Day) – Families worship Lord Ganesha (good luck) and Goddess Lakshmi (wealth), diyas (lamps) are lit, sweets are shared, and prayers are offered.
• Day 4 – Govardhan Puja – Commemorates Lord Krishna lifting Govardhan mountain to protect villagers from heavy rains and worship of Govardhan Parvat continues as tradition.
• Day 5 – Bhai Dooj – On this day, sisters pray for their brothers’ long lives and brothers give gifts in return.
• Other Communities that Celebrate Diwali – It was originally a Hindu festival but is now celebrated by Hindus, Jains, Sikhs, and Newar Buddhists.
• Each community connects it to different stories, yet the festival always symbolizes the triumph of light over darkness, knowledge over ignorance, and good over evil.
• Global Reach – Official holiday not only in India but also in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad & Tobago, Suriname, Malaysia, Singapore, and Fiji.

Quick Fact

References

1. Hindustan Times | Deepavali inscribed on UNESCO’S Intangible Cultural Heritage list
2. Utsav.gov.in | Deepavali
3. National Geographic | Deepavali