UNFCCC-COP30 – Major Outcomes

Why in News?

Recently, the 30th edition of the Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP30), the annual two-week climate talks, concluded in Belem, Brazil on 22nd November.

What is UNFCCC – COP?

• UNFCCC COP – It stands for the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• Purpose – It is the supreme decision-making body where member countries (Parties) meet annually to assess global efforts to combat climate change and negotiate agreements to limit global warming.
• Functions – The COP serves as a forum to review implementation, set new goals, and make decisions on issues like reducing emissions, adapting to climate impacts, and providing climate finance.
• COP Agreement process

What are the major outcomes of the COP30?

• Belem Health Action Plan – It is a flagship outcome of Brazil’s COP 30 Presidency, which was unveiled on the dedicated Health Day of COP30 – 13 November 2025.
• It is aimed at strengthening global health systems to cope better with the impacts of climate change.
• It is structured around two cross-cutting principles and concepts: health equity and ‘climate justice’ and leadership and governance on climate and health with social participation.
• Tropical Forests Forever Facility (TFFF) – Brazil, formally launched the TFFF, which is designed as a “payment-for-performance” model.
• It uses agreed satellite monitoring standards and systems to reward tropical forest countries with a continuing source of funding as long as they preserve their forests.
• TFFF aims to mobilise around USD 125 billion through public and private investment, using returns to pay nations that conserve forests. Brazil made the first $1 billion investment in the facility.
• Belem Political Agreement – The new draft text on a political package, presented on the last day of the event, skirted each of the four long-standing issues it was meant to resolve, leaving almost everyone unhappy.
• A group of 29 countries, mainly small island states and those from Europe, rejected the draft text because it skipped any mention of a roadmap on fossil fuel phase-out, which was one of their key demands.
• The 4 key demands were:
  • Climate-finance obligation: Demand of the developing countries regarding full implementation of the finance provision contained in Article 9.1 of the Paris Agreement.
  • Climate-related trade measures: India, China, and some other developing countries have been flagging concerns related to trade-related restrictive measures, such as the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). They have argued that CBAM is a discriminatory trade practice disguised as climate action.
  • Collective Response to the 1.5°C Goal/Fossil Fuels: Developed nations want to see enhanced mitigation actions in pursuit of the 1.5 degrees Celsius global warming target.
  • Transparency Reporting Framework: Demand mainly raised by developed countries to have greater transparency in reporting on climate actions
• Santa Marta conference – In a move to push for a global phaseout of fossil fuels, Colombia announced an international conference on Just Transition Away from Fossil Fuels, to be co-hosted with the Netherlands, in Santa Marta on April 28-29, 2026.
• The objective of the conference is to explore the legal, economic and social dimensions of phasing out fossil fuels — from trade impacts and subsidy reform to macroeconomic stability, energy security, renewable deployment, and labour transitions.
• The Open Planetary Intelligence Network (OPIN) – This is launched for data interoperability, which will accelerate the global climate transformation by unifying critical digital technologies.
• The Global Ethical Stocktake (GES) – This is yet another significant initiative, which seeks to incorporate moral and ethical considerations and civil society dimensions into the global climate action agenda. Its Asia edition was held in New Delhi this September
• Belem 4x pledge – Belém 4X pledge on sustainable fuel is a “call to action” to accelerate the energy transition and expand the supply of liquid biofuels, biogas, hydrogen, and other inputs.
• It aims to provide political support and promote international cooperation to increase at least fourfold the use of sustainable fuels by 2035, from 2024 levels.
• Belem Declaration on Hunger, Poverty, and People-Centered Climate Action – At the climate summit, leaders from 43 countries and the European Union signed this declaration, placing the world’s most vulnerable populations at the center of global climate policy.
• The declaration recommends that “countries continue investing in mitigation, while giving greater priority to adaptation—particularly human-centered measures such as social protection, crop insurance, and other instruments that strengthen community resilience.
• National Adaptation Plan (NAP) Implementation Alliance – It is a multistakeholder partnership aimed at accelerating the effective and impactful implementation of National Adaptation Plans (NAP), which was announced at the summit.
• The Alliance is a part of the Plan to Accelerate Solutions (PAS) within the COP30 Action Agenda which aims to accelerate collaboration between the organizations supporting the implementation of NAPs and mobilize public and private investment to advance national adaptation priorities
• Brazil pushes for Mutirao strategy – The Brazilian Presidency of COP30 today unveiled the official Global Mutirão platform within the COP30 website, a new digital entry point to unite and amplify climate action around the world.

Mutirao is a Brazilian tradition of collective, community-driven mobilisation — a spirit the Presidency seeks to translate into global climate action.

• The proposal aims to close the gap between pledges and delivery and serves as Brazil’s high-stakes blueprint for COP30, centred on accelerating progress in energy, finance, and trade.

What are the some major outcomes from the previous COPs?

Reference

The Indian Express| Outcomes of COP30

NIA – India’s Significant Counter-Terror Architecture

Why in News?

Recently, The National Investigation Agency (NIA) on Wednesday arrested a man for allegedly harbouring and providing logistical support to Dr Umar Nabi, who drove the car that exploded outside the Red Fort Metro station in Delhi on November 10, killing at least 12 people and injuring several others.

How the NIA was created?

• Establishment – The aftermath of the 26/11 Mumbai terror attacks, led to the creation of the NIA.
• Need – It was created to address the critical need for a specialised agency capable of investigating complex, inter-state, and trans-national terror plots.
  • Gap in security infrastructure – The terrorist attack on Mumbai on 26 November 2008, which claimed the lives of 166 people, exposed gaping holes in India’s security infrastructure.
  • Lack of coordination – State police forces and other central agencies were not able to effectively coordinate and investigate crimes with a transnational or inter-state terror dimension.
• The NIA Act of 2008 – It was enacted immediately after the attack, established the NIA under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
• NIA acts as a specialised, central agency capable of investigating transnational and complex terror plots.
• Major role – The agency’s primary function is to investigate and prosecute scheduled offences (mentioned in the NIA Act, 2008), which are serious crimes involving national security and those under the UAPA (Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967).

How 2019 amendments strengthened NIA’s authority?

• Focus on broader networks of terrorism – This includes the financial and logistical wings of terror networks, including organised criminal gangs, narco-terrorism and financing of terror activities, under its purview.
• Specialised cells – To tackle crimes emerging threats, the NIA has now established specialised cells such as:
  • The Terror Funding and Fake Currency (TFFC) Cell.
  • Anti-Cyber Terrorism Division (ACTD).
  • The Anti Human Trafficking Division (AHTD).
• Jurisdiction & prior permission – The agency has jurisdiction over all states and can take over the investigation of scheduled offences anywhere in India without prior permission or consent from state governments.
• This ensures operational efficiency and eliminates jurisdictional hurdles in inter-state and trans-state cases.
• Special courts – The cases investigated by NIA are tried by NIA Special Courts, ensuring a framework for a speedy trial on terrorism and national security-related offences.
• The NIA (Amendment) Act, 2019 – It further expanded the agency’s mandate and powers:
  • Extra-territorial jurisdictions – The NIA was now empowered to investigate scheduled offences committed outside India, provided they are directed against Indian citizens or affect Indian interests, subject to international treaties.
  • Expanded list of scheduled offences – The scope of the agency was expanded by adding human trafficking, counterfeiting of currency, manufacture and sale of prohibited arms, and cyber-terrorism to the list of scheduled offences.
  • Designation of Special Courts – The amendment empowered the centre and state governments to designate sessions courts as NIA special courts for the trial of scheduled offences in consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court under which the sessions court falls.

What are the evolving mandate?

• Conviction rate – It has established a strong track record with a high conviction rate of around 95%, which bolsters public confidence and serves as a deterrent to terror outfits.
• Repository & Information sharing – This agency also acts as a repository of terrorism-related intelligence and facilitates intelligence sharing and coordination between central and state agencies.
• Training programmes – The NIA also conducts regular training programmes for police forces across India with a view to enhancing national counter-terrorism capabilities.
• Disruption of terror groups – It has been instrumental in apprehending several terror groups, disrupting various terror modules, and preventing some attempted attacks.
• Dismantling financial networks – The agency is also credited with cutting off key financial networks that support terror outfits and fuel terror operations that contributed to the unrest in Jammu and Kashmir.

What are the challenges?

• Overreach of powers – Although state governments can refer the cases pertaining to the scheduled offences for NIA investigation, the Central government may also, suo motu, direct the agency to take up/over the probe.
• This has, at times, raised concerns, especially because law and order is a state subject.
• Heavy requirement of infrastructure – As the agency’s mandate expands, it will require more funding, recruitment, and specialised technical expertise, particularly for addressing domains such as cyberterrorism and counterfeiting.
• Diplomatic barriers – All actions of the NIA beyond Indian borders need to be carried out through diplomatic channels and in accordance with international treaties on legal assistance.

What needs to be done?

• Permanent cadre – The creation of a permanent cadre of specialised NIA officers rather than relying on officers deputed from the IPS and other police and services.
• Intelligence sharing system – The creation of a system of intelligence sharing between the NIA, the state Anti Terror Squads (ATS), and police forces.
• This will lead to effective communication and avoid duplication of effort.
• Increasing the investment – Continuous and heavy investment in cutting-edge technology that keeps up with technological advancement, especially in view of the ever evolving nature of crimes like cyber terrorism, narco-terrorism, and encrypted communication.
• This includes advanced forensic analysis and digital investigation tools that can match the sophistication of new terror modules.

What lies ahead?

• The NIA remains the cornerstone of India’s counter-terror architecture.
• Its ability to adapt, evolve, and continually upgrade both human resources and technological capabilities will further strengthen its effectiveness in an increasingly complex national security landscape.

Reference

The Indian Express| NIA and Anti-terror Measures

Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Sintered Rare Earth Permanent Magnets

Why in News?

The Union Cabinet recently approved a new “first-of-its-kind” scheme, with a financial outlay of Rs.7,280 crore, to manufacture Rare Earth Permanent Magnets (REPM) in India.

Sintering is a manufacturing process that uses high heat and pressure to create the densest and most powerful rare-earth magnets

• Aim - To establish 6,000 metric tonnes per annum (MTPA) of integrated Rare Earth Permanent Magnet (REPM) manufacturing in India.
• Beneficiary split-up - The total capacity of 6,000 MTPA is given to 5 beneficiaries through a global competitive bidding process, with each beneficiary being allotted up to 1,200 MTPA of capacity.
• Scheme duration - 7 years from the date of award.
  • 2-year gestation period for setting up an integrated REPM manufacturing facility, and
  • 5 years for incentive disbursement on the sale of REPM.
• Focus on value chain - The scheme will support the
  • Creation of integrated REPM manufacturing facilities,
  • Involving the conversion of rare earth oxides to metals,
  • Metals to alloys, and alloys to finished REPMs.
• Support achieving Net-zero Target - The scheme will ensure a secure supply chain for national industries and contribute towards achieving the country's Net Zero 2070 targets.
• Significance - By strengthening indigenous manufacturing capabilities, it will contribute to reducing carbon emissions and lowering dependence on crude oil imports, further enhancing the nation’s energy security.

Reference

The Hindu | Rare Earth Permanent Magnets (REPM)

Naming of the Martian Landforms

Why in News?

A 3.5-billion-year-old crater on Mars will henceforth be known after M.S. Krishnan, the pioneering Indian geologist, proposed by Kerala-based researchers.

• Approved by – The International Astronomical Union (IAU).
• New names - Apart from ‘Krishnan,’ the IAU has also accepted several Kerala-based names for smaller landforms associated with the crater.
• These are ‘Valiamala,’ ‘Thumba,’ ‘Bekal,’ ‘Varkala’ and ‘Periyar’ for smaller craters and a vallis (valley).

General IAU Naming Rules

• The IAU adheres to several overarching principles for all planetary nomenclature.

• Clarity and Uniqueness - Names should be simple, clear, and unambiguous. Duplication of names across different bodies is discouraged.
• Scientific Need - Features are named only when they have special scientific interest and the name is useful to the scientific community for communication and mapping.
• Size Limits - Generally, official names are not given to features with the longest dimensions less than 100 meters.
• International Basis - Nomenclature should be international, with equitable selection of names from various ethnic groups, countries, and genders.
• No Political/Military/Religious Significance - Names with political, military, or religious significance are prohibited, except for political figures who lived before the 19^th century.
• No Living Persons - Features may only be named for persons deceased for at least three years, and generally only for those of high and enduring international standing.
• Informal Names - Mission teams often use informal names (nicknames) for small, temporary features (rocks, soil samples, etc.) for operational purposes, but the IAU does not officially recognize these.
• Specific Martian Naming Themes - For features that do meet the IAU criteria for official naming, specific themes are applied to different feature types on Mars:
• Large Craters (>60 km diameter)- Named after deceased scientists who have made foundational contributions, or science-fiction authors of high and enduring international standing.
• Small Craters - Named after small towns and villages of the world with populations of approximately 100,000 or less.
• Large Natural Features - Mons (mountains), Patera (shallow craters), Planitia (plains), Planum (plateaus), Vallis (valleys), etc.
• Themes vary, but often draw from classical albedo features on early maps, or are associated with existing major names (e.g., the name for a large structural feature might be linked to a nearby named crater).

Reference

The Hindu | Naming of Martian land forms

Woolly Mammoth

Why in News?

The world’s oldest RNA was found in a 40,000-year-old woolly mammoth recently.

• Yuka Mammoth - In 2010, the mummy of a juvenile mammoth was discovered on Siberia’s Arctic coast.
• The animal, nicknamed “Yuka” after the nearby village of Yukagir, had been frozen for nearly 40,000 years.
• The permafrost preserved its carcass in exquisite detail, with patches of reddish fur, a twisted trunk, and even its brain intact.
• Recent Scientific Interest -Yuka’s tissues preserve traces of ribonucleic acid (RNA), genetic molecules that are crucial to life but usually deteriorate shortly after death.
• These bits of genetic material have helped construct the species’ genome, revealing how closely mammoths are related to living elephants.
• Scientists are exploring “de-extinction” using gene-editing (e.g., CRISPR) to introduce mammoth traits into Asian elephants

Woolly Mammoth

• Scientific Name - Mammuthus primigenius
• The woolly mammoth was a large, elephant-like mammal that lived during the Ice Age (Pleistocene epoch) and went extinct about 4,000 years ago.
• Distribution - Lived across Northern Eurasia and North America.
• Habitat - Adapted to extremely cold, tundra-like environments.
• Physical Features
  • Thick shaggy fur and dense undercoat
  • Curved long tusks
  • Small ears to reduce heat loss
  • A hump of fat on the back for insulation and energy storage
• Diet – Herbivore, fed on grasses, sedges, shrubs, and herbs and had flat teeth for grinding tough vegetation
• Adaptations to Cold
  • Layer of fat under skin
  • Reduced extremities exposed to cold
  • Hair-covered body
• Extinction
• • Factors believed to have caused extinction:
  • Climate change after the Ice Age
  • Human hunting
  • Habitat loss
  • Small isolated populations suffered from inbreeding

Reference

National Geographic | World’s oldest RNA

Sirpur archaeological site

Why in News?

Sirpur is set for a facelift as Chhattisgarh pushes for a UNESCO World Heritage tag

• Sirpur, also known as Shripur and Sripura, is a multi-religious urban centre first discovered in 1882 by Alexander Cunningham.

Alexander Cunningham is a British army engineer who became the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1871.

• Sirpur in is a 5^th–12^th Century archaeological site on the banks of the Mahanadi.
• Excavations revealed 22 Shiva temples, 5 Vishnu temples, 10 Buddhist viharas and 3 Jain viharas.
• Sirpur was the flourishing capital of Dakshina Kosala under the Panduvanshi and later Somavamshi kings. The site still has ruins of palace complexes, market structures, residential quarters, brick and stone temples, viharas, stupas, meditation cells and a water management system.
• The Lakshmana Temple (dedicated to Vishnu), one of India’s finest brick temples, was built around the 7th Century.
• The Surang Tila complex built on a high terrace accessed by a steep flight of 37 steps has multiple shrines in the panchayatana style (one main shrine surrounded by four subsidiary ones).
• The site was a major Buddhist centre with large viharas, meditation halls, and excavated stupas.
• One monastery (Tivaradeva Mahavihara) houses a significant Buddha statue.
• Archaeologists have also uncovered a 6th-century market complex, showing Sirpur was both a religious and commercial hub.
• Sirpur’s location along the Mahanadi creates a sacred riverine cultural landscape with ghats and temple clusters, aligning with UNESCO’s concept of a combined work of nature and humankind, enhancing the site’s value.

Reference

The Indian Express | Sirpur archaeological site

Study on Effects of Particulate Matter 1

Why in News?

A recent study states that PM1 poses greater health risks than PM2.5 but remains unmonitored in India, and it links to cardiovascular disease, hypertension (also in children), cancer, and respiratory illness.

• PM1, particulate matter smaller than 1 micron.
• It is a lethal but least understood air pollutant in India’s toxic airscape.
• Ultrafine PM1 is especially hazardous because of its ability to move past the body’s natural defences in a way larger particles cannot.
• PM10 is largely filtered out by nasal hair and mucous, while PM2.5 travels deep into the lungs and is already linked to millions of global deaths.
• PM1, however, is small enough to penetrate the alveoli, cross into the bloodstream, and, in some cases, infiltrate through the skin.
• PM1 particles carry hazardous chemicals and heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, chromium, and nickel, all of which are strongly associated with heart disease and cancer.
• This toxic load moves through the bloodstream, heightening long-term risks even at low-level exposure.
• PM1 forms nearly 50% of the PM2.5 concentration.
• No Regulatory Framework - Globally, scientists have warned that this ultra-fine fraction may be causing damage far more severe than PM2.5 and PM10.
• Neither the World Health Organization nor India’s Central Pollution Control Board has set standards for PM1, and the pollutant does not appear in any national regulatory framework.
• India’s continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations (CAAQMS) currently measure PM10 and PM2.5, but PM1 is not included in the CPCB or state-level regulatory monitoring frameworks.

Reference

Down to Earth | PM1 deadlier than PM2.5