Body’s Immune Cells ‘Betraying’ It in Breast Cancer - Insights from Indian Research

Why in News?

A review by Indian researchers highlights how immune cells meant to protect the body can be reprogrammed to assist breast cancer progression.

What is breast cancer?

• Breast cancer – It is a disease where cells in the breast grow uncontrollably, forming tumors that can be invasive (spread to other tissues) or, rarely, stay in place.
• Types – The most common forms are:
  • Ductal carcinoma (starts in ducts)
  • Lobular carcinoma (starts in glands).
• In Situ vs. Invasive – Non-invasive (in situ) cancers remain in their origin spot.
• Invasive cancers spread into surrounding breast tissue, lymph nodes, or other body parts.
• Prevalence – Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women globally and remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women.
• Nearly 15% of breast cancer deaths occur due to metastasis and drug resistance, highlighting the need for deeper biological understanding beyond tumour cells alone.
• Recent scientific research has shifted focus towards the tumour microenvironment, especially the role of immune cells in cancer progression.
• Symptoms – A new lump, swelling, breast skin dimpling, nipple changes (inversion or discharge), or pain.
• Detection – Regular screening, such as mammograms, is crucial for finding cancer early, often before symptoms appear.
• Risk Factors – Increasing age, family history, genetic mutations (e.g., BRCA1, BRCA2), alcohol consumption, and obesity.
• Causes – While many cases have no clear cause, they often stem from genetic damage within breast cells.
• Treatment Options – Treatment is individualized and often involves a combination of:
  • Surgery – Lumpectomy or mastectomy.
  • Radiation Therapy – High-energy rays to kill cancer cells.
  • Systemic Therapies – Chemotherapy, hormone therapy (e.g., to block estrogen), or targeted therapies (e.g., for HER2-positive).

What are the findings of the new study?

• Indian Researchers and the Review – The review was conducted by Nagaland University.
• It was published in the Breast Global Journal.
• The review focuses on the behaviour of macrophages within breast tumours and their role in metastasis.
• Role of the Immune System in Breast Cancer – Traditionally, cancer was understood as a disease caused by uncontrolled proliferation of tumour cells alone.
• The research shows that cancer can manipulate the body’s own immune system to support tumour growth and spread.

What are Macrophages?

• Macrophages – They are white blood cells that normally eliminate harmful cells through phagocytosis.
• In breast tumours, macrophages undergo behavioural changes and become tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs).
• Instead of destroying cancer cells, TAMs begin supporting tumour growth and survival.
• Different States of Macrophages – Macrophages exist in two major functional states:
  • M1 macrophages – They are anti-tumour in nature and promote inflammation to destroy abnormal cells.
  • M2 macrophages – They are involved in tissue repair and suppression of inflammation.
• Breast cancer cells push macrophages towards the M2 state, thereby weakening anti-cancer immunity.

How Tumor-Associated Macrophages Promote Cancer Progression?

• Angiogenesis – M2-type macrophages release cytokines that promote angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels.
• These blood vessels supply tumours with oxygen and nutrients, enabling rapid tumour growth.
• Tumour-associated macrophages suppress T cells, reducing the immune system’s ability to identify and kill cancer cells.
• Cancer cells also display “don’t eat me” signals that prevent macrophages from attacking them.
• TAMs remodel the extracellular matrix, making it easier for cancer cells to invade surrounding tissues and spread to distant organs.
• Role in Metastasis – By breaking down structural barriers, tumour-associated mac
• rophages facilitate the escape of cancer cells from the breast tissue.
• This enables cancer cells to metastasise to organs such as the lungs and bones.
• The interaction between tumours and macrophages forms a self-reinforcing cycle, where growing tumours attract more macrophages, which further enhance tumour progression.
• Implications for Future Cancer Therapy – Understanding the tumour–immune cell interaction opens new avenues for breast cancer treatment.
• Future therapies may focus on re-educating macrophages to revert them to their tumour-fighting M1 state.
• Another approach involves blocking molecular signals that convert macrophages into cancer-supporting cells.
• Such strategies could complement existing treatments like chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
• Significance for Targeted Immunotherapy – Reprogramming M2 macrophages could slow breast cancer progression and reduce metastasis.
• Targeted immunotherapies based on immune cell modulation may offer more precise and less toxic treatment options.
• This approach aligns with the global shift towards personalised and immune-based cancer therapies.

What lies ahead?

• Breast cancer progression is not driven solely by tumour cells but is strongly influenced by the immune microenvironment.
• The ‘betrayal’ of immune cells like macrophages represents a critical challenge as well as an opportunity in cancer treatment.
• Indian research contributes significantly to understanding this complex interaction and points towards innovative immunotherapeutic strategies for improving long-term survival in breast cancer patients.

Reference

The Hindu| Breast Cancer

The Case for Sodium-Ion Technology – Rethinking Battery Strategy in India

Why in News?

In recent days, the Sodium-ion batteries present a promising alternative to Lithium-ion batteries.

What are batteries?

• Battery – It is an electrochemical device that stores chemical energy and converts it into electrical energy to power devices.
• Components – It consists of one or more cells—containing an anode, cathode, and electrolyte—that produce electric current through chemical reactions.
• Cells vs. Battery – While a "cell" is the basic unit, a "battery" historically refers to multiple cells connected in series or parallel to increase voltage or capacity.
• Types of Batteries
  • Primary Batteries – Non-rechargeable, single-use batteries (e.g., alkaline).
  • Secondary Batteries – Rechargeable batteries (e.g., Lithium-ion, Nickel-metal hydride).

What are the issues with lithium-ion batteries?

• Dominance of Lithium-Ion Batteries – Among various battery chemistries such as lead-acid and nickel-cadmium, lithium-ion batteries have emerged as the dominant global technology.
• Their dominance is driven by high energy density, low self-discharge rates, and long cycle life.
• Sustained global investment over two decades has improved lithium-ion performance, manufacturing efficiency, and scale.
• By 2024, global lithium-ion manufacturing capacity reached nearly 2.5 times annual demand.
• Battery costs declined sharply from around $1,100 per kWh in the early 2010s to about $108 per kWh in 2025 due to economies of scale.
• Structural Challenges of Lithium-Ion Technology – Lithium-ion batteries are highly resource-intensive and depend on critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite.
• The availability of these minerals is unevenly distributed across a limited number of countries.
• Refining and processing capacities are even more geographically concentrated.
• These factors create vulnerabilities related to supply security, price volatility, and geopolitical risk.
• Rising global battery demand is likely to intensify these constraints, necessitating alternative technologies.
• India’s Battery Manufacturing Ambitions and Constraints – India has taken steps to build domestic battery manufacturing capacity through the Production Linked Incentive scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cells launched in 2021.
• Around 40 GWh of battery manufacturing capacity has been allocated under the scheme so far.
• Actual deployment remains limited, with just over 1 GWh commissioned to date.
• India’s upstream ecosystem, including raw material extraction, mineral processing, and active material manufacturing, remains underdeveloped.
• Domestic lithium reserves are limited and not yet commercially viable.
• As a result, India’s dependence on imports for lithium-ion batteries is likely to continue.

How sodium-ion batteries serve as an alternative?

• Energy security – Sodium-ion batteries present a promising alternative that can reduce material risk and enhance energy security.
• Adjustable specific energy – Sodium-ion batteries have lower specific energy than lithium-ion batteries due to sodium’s higher atomic mass.
• However, this energy density gap can be narrowed by reducing the mass of other cell components.

Specific energy is defined as the energy per unit mass.

• Layered transition-metal oxide sodium-ion cathodes already demonstrate higher specific energy than other sodium-based chemistries.
• These sodium-ion batteries are approaching the specific energy of lithium iron phosphate batteries.
• Although volumetric energy density remains lower, ongoing optimisation is expected to reduce this gap further.
• Safety Advantages – Safety represents a major advantage of sodium-ion batteries over lithium-ion batteries.
• Studies show that sodium-ion cells exhibit significantly lower peak temperatures during thermal runaway events.
• Lithium-ion batteries are classified as dangerous goods and must be transported at a limited state of charge.
• These restrictions increase logistical complexity and costs due to safety risks associated with copper current collectors.
• Sodium-ion batteries use aluminium current collectors on both electrodes, avoiding such risks.
• Sodium-ion cells can be safely stored and transported at zero volts without performance degradation.
• Manufacturing Compatibility – Sodium-ion batteries are largely compatible with existing lithium-ion manufacturing infrastructure.
• Lithium-ion production lines can be adapted to sodium-ion manufacturing with relatively minor modifications.
• The main process difference lies in stricter moisture control during cell preparation.
• While sodium-ion cells require deeper vacuum drying, these challenges are expected to reduce with advancements in manufacturing techniques.
• This compatibility lowers capital investment barriers and enables manufacturers to hedge against supply risks.
• Lower Material Risk and Supply Chain Resilience – Sodium is derived from abundantly available resources such as soda ash, which are geographically widespread.
• Several sodium-ion chemistries eliminate the need for critical minerals like cobalt, nickel, and copper.
• Aluminium current collectors used in sodium-ion batteries are cheaper, lighter, and more widely available than copper.
• These features reduce exposure to commodity price volatility and improve supply chain resilience for India.
• Strategic Importance – Sodium-ion batteries are not merely experimental but are emerging as commercially viable technologies.
• Cost projections indicate that sodium-ion batteries could become cheaper than lithium-ion batteries by 2035.
• Around 70 GWh of sodium-ion manufacturing capacity is already operational globally as of 2025.
• Global capacity is expected to scale up to nearly 400 GWh by 2030.
• Early engagement with sodium-ion technology is therefore strategically important for India.

What lies ahead?

• Public support for battery infrastructure should explicitly include sodium-ion chemistries.
• Incentive frameworks should encourage flexibility so that battery plants can manufacture both lithium-ion and sodium-ion cells.
• Standards, safety codes, and certification pathways must be updated to include sodium-ion batteries.
• EV manufacturers should be encouraged to type-test and approve vehicle platforms using sodium-ion batteries.
• Targeted public funding for R&D, pilot projects, and early deployment should focus on grid storage and small EV segments.
• India’s growing reliance on batteries makes energy storage a strategic concern for economic and energy security.
• Continued dependence on lithium-ion batteries exposes structural vulnerabilities linked to critical minerals and imports.
• Sodium-ion batteries offer safety, material availability, manufacturing compatibility, and supply resilience advantages.
• By aligning industrial policy, regulation, and market incentives, India can build a future-ready battery ecosystem in which sodium-ion technology plays a central role.

Reference

The Hindu| Sodium ion Batteries

Body’s Immune Cells ‘Betraying’ It in Breast Cancer - Insights from Indian Research

Why in News?

A review by Indian researchers highlights how immune cells meant to protect the body can be reprogrammed to assist breast cancer progression.

What is breast cancer?

• Breast cancer – It is a disease where cells in the breast grow uncontrollably, forming tumors that can be invasive (spread to other tissues) or, rarely, stay in place.
• Types – The most common forms are:
  • Ductal carcinoma (starts in ducts)
  • Lobular carcinoma (starts in glands).
• In Situ vs. Invasive – Non-invasive (in situ) cancers remain in their origin spot.
• Invasive cancers spread into surrounding breast tissue, lymph nodes, or other body parts.
• Prevalence – Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women globally and remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths in women.
• Nearly 15% of breast cancer deaths occur due to metastasis and drug resistance, highlighting the need for deeper biological understanding beyond tumour cells alone.
• Recent scientific research has shifted focus towards the tumour microenvironment, especially the role of immune cells in cancer progression.
• Symptoms – A new lump, swelling, breast skin dimpling, nipple changes (inversion or discharge), or pain.
• Detection – Regular screening, such as mammograms, is crucial for finding cancer early, often before symptoms appear.
• Risk Factors – Increasing age, family history, genetic mutations (e.g., BRCA1, BRCA2), alcohol consumption, and obesity.
• Causes – While many cases have no clear cause, they often stem from genetic damage within breast cells.
• Treatment Options – Treatment is individualized and often involves a combination of:
  • Surgery – Lumpectomy or mastectomy.
  • Radiation Therapy – High-energy rays to kill cancer cells.
  • Systemic Therapies – Chemotherapy, hormone therapy (e.g., to block estrogen), or targeted therapies (e.g., for HER2-positive).

What are the findings of the new study?

• Indian Researchers and the Review – The review was conducted by Nagaland University.
• It was published in the Breast Global Journal.
• The review focuses on the behaviour of macrophages within breast tumours and their role in metastasis.
• Role of the Immune System in Breast Cancer – Traditionally, cancer was understood as a disease caused by uncontrolled proliferation of tumour cells alone.
• The research shows that cancer can manipulate the body’s own immune system to support tumour growth and spread.

What are Macrophages?

• Macrophages – They are white blood cells that normally eliminate harmful cells through phagocytosis.
• In breast tumours, macrophages undergo behavioural changes and become tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs).
• Instead of destroying cancer cells, TAMs begin supporting tumour growth and survival.
• Different States of Macrophages – Macrophages exist in two major functional states:
  • M1 macrophages – They are anti-tumour in nature and promote inflammation to destroy abnormal cells.
  • M2 macrophages – They are involved in tissue repair and suppression of inflammation.
• Breast cancer cells push macrophages towards the M2 state, thereby weakening anti-cancer immunity.

How Tumor-Associated Macrophages Promote Cancer Progression?

• Angiogenesis – M2-type macrophages release cytokines that promote angiogenesis, which is the formation of new blood vessels.
• These blood vessels supply tumours with oxygen and nutrients, enabling rapid tumour growth.
• Tumour-associated macrophages suppress T cells, reducing the immune system’s ability to identify and kill cancer cells.
• Cancer cells also display “don’t eat me” signals that prevent macrophages from attacking them.
• TAMs remodel the extracellular matrix, making it easier for cancer cells to invade surrounding tissues and spread to distant organs.
• Role in Metastasis – By breaking down structural barriers, tumour-associated mac
• rophages facilitate the escape of cancer cells from the breast tissue.
• This enables cancer cells to metastasise to organs such as the lungs and bones.
• The interaction between tumours and macrophages forms a self-reinforcing cycle, where growing tumours attract more macrophages, which further enhance tumour progression.
• Implications for Future Cancer Therapy – Understanding the tumour–immune cell interaction opens new avenues for breast cancer treatment.
• Future therapies may focus on re-educating macrophages to revert them to their tumour-fighting M1 state.
• Another approach involves blocking molecular signals that convert macrophages into cancer-supporting cells.
• Such strategies could complement existing treatments like chemotherapy and radiotherapy.
• Significance for Targeted Immunotherapy – Reprogramming M2 macrophages could slow breast cancer progression and reduce metastasis.
• Targeted immunotherapies based on immune cell modulation may offer more precise and less toxic treatment options.
• This approach aligns with the global shift towards personalised and immune-based cancer therapies.

What lies ahead?

• Breast cancer progression is not driven solely by tumour cells but is strongly influenced by the immune microenvironment.
• The ‘betrayal’ of immune cells like macrophages represents a critical challenge as well as an opportunity in cancer treatment.
• Indian research contributes significantly to understanding this complex interaction and points towards innovative immunotherapeutic strategies for improving long-term survival in breast cancer patients.

Reference

The Hindu| Breast Cancer

Agni-3

Why in News?

Recently, Agni-3 was successfully test-fired from the Integrated Test Range (ITR) at Chandipur, Odisha, by the Strategic Forces Command (SFC).

• It is an indigenously developed nuclear-capable Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM).
• Developed By – Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• Type – A surface-to-surface missile mounted on a mobile launcher.
• Role – This strategic missile is a key part of India’s nuclear deterrence and second-strike capability.
• It was inducted into the armed forces and has been in service with SFC since 2011.
• Strike Range – 3,000–3,500 km with high accuracy and real-time trajectory tracking.
• Flight Profile – Follows a designated flight path and accurately hits the pre-decided target area.
• Propulsion System – Two-stage solid-propelled system.
• Guidance system – Agni-3 uses a strapdown inertial navigation system (INS) supported by GPS, which helps the missile accurately reach its target.
• Characteristics – It is a nuclear delivery system, with an estimated warhead yield of 200–300 kilotons.
• Length – 17 metres.
• Diameter – 2 metres.
• Accuracy – About 40 metres Circular Error Probable (CEP).
• Mass – 11,000 kg, lighter than all earlier Agni series missiles.
• Payload capacity – 1.5 tonnes with road and rail mobile launch capability.
• Agni series - Short & Medium Range (Agni-I, II & Prime)
• Agni-I - Range 700–1,200 km) and Agni-II (2,000 km) are solid-fuel, mobile missiles designed for regional stability.
• Agni-Prime- Range 1,000–2,000 km features Encapsulated storage and advanced navigation to target mobile threats, including naval vessels.
• Intermediate Capabilities (Agni-III) - Moving into deeper strike roles, offer high precision.
• Future Variants –
  • Agni-4 - range ~4,000 km, specifically utilizes 5th-generation avionics and Ring Laser Gyros to achieve sub-100-meter accuracy.
  • Agni-5 - range ~5,000 km is a three-stage ICBM with a 5,500 km range, ensuring "fire-and-forget" capability across continents.

References

1. PIB | Agni-3
2. ToI | Agni-3
3. TH| Agni-3

Seeds Act and Allied Regulations

Prelims: Current events of national and international importance

Why in News?

Recently, the Government informed the Rajya Sabha about measures to regulate seed quality and prevent spurious seeds.

• Aim – To regulate seed quality, prevent sale of spurious/sub-standard seeds, and protect farmers’ rights and traditional varieties.
• Objectives –
• Strengthen enforcement against fake seeds.
• Ensure traceability and transparency in the seed supply chain.
• Protect farmers’ and traditional seed varieties.
• Promote availability of quality seeds at affordable prices.
• Key Features –

Reference

PIB | Seeds Act and Allied Regulations

RBI’s MPC Status Quo on Liquidity

Why in News?

Economists expect the RBI to pause further rate cuts and maintain the current repo rate, as inflation is likely to rise and liquidity conditions remain tight.

• Monetary Policy – Monetary policy refers to the actions undertaken by a central bank to manipulate the money supply and credit conditions to stimulate or restrain economic activity.

Recent Highlights

• Repo Rate Cut – Reduced from 5.50% to 5.25%, bringing the cumulative cuts in 2025 to 125 basis points (bps).
  • Impact – It makes loans cheaper.
• Inflation – India follows Flexible Inflation Targeting (FIT) with a target band of 4% ± 2%.
  • Current inflation – It is at 2.2% and is near the lower bound (2%).
• Projection – RBI – GDP Projection for FY26 is 7.3%
• Govt Estimate – Real GDP projected at 7.4% per the first advance estimates.

Reference

IE | RBI’s MPC Status Quo on Liquidity

Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary

Why in News?

Recently, the Arunachal Pradesh government has permitted the capture of a tiger after it fatally attacked a police head constable inside Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary.

• Location – Lower Dibang Valley District, Arunachal Pradesh.
• Establishment – 1980
• Under – The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Altitude – 400 m to 3568 m.
• Vegetation –
  • Tropical Evergreen Forests (up to 900 m)
  • Sub-Tropical & Temperate Forests (900–1800 m)
  • Temperate Broadleaf Forests (1800–2800 m)
  • Temperate Conifer Forests (2800–3500 m)
• Rivers – It includes perennial rivers, namely the Deopani, Diphu, and Ahupani, Enjopan and Jowe, which are part of the Brahmaputra River System.
• Lakes – Sally Lake and Mehao Lake.
• Flora – Trees – Hollock, Khokan, Mekai, Simul, Titachampa, Gamari, Albizia, Magnolia, Ficus.
• Bamboo & Canes – Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Phyllostachys bambusoides, other cane varieties.
• Medicinal plants – Coptis teeta (endemic) and Taxus baccata.
• Orchids – Rich diversity of orchid species.
• Fauna – Mammals –Tiger, Leopard, Clouded Leopard, Hoolock Gibbon, Elephant, Gaur, Sambar.
• High-altitude mammals – Red Panda, Musk Deer, Mishmi Takin, Serow, Goral, Snow Leopard.
• Birds – ~200 species, including Hornbills and Pheasants.
• Reptiles – King Cobra, Python, Pit Viper.
• Tribal Influence – Area predominantly inhabited by the Idu Mishmi and Adi tribes.
• Significance – It is a high-priority site for biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas.
• The sanctuary's habitat remains mostly intact, with about 70% mixed forest coverage.

References

1. NewsHub | Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Mehao Wildlife Sanctuary

Chichón Volcano

Why in News?

Recent unusual activity at Chichón volcano, including crater lake changes and underground signals, points to an active hydrothermal system.

• Name – Derived from the local Chiapas term “Chichón,” meaning little bump, reflecting the volcano’s shape.
• Location – Southern Mexico.
• Type – Stratovolcano. It is a tall, cone-shaped mountain made of layers of ash and lava. They are famous for steep sides and powerful eruptions, like Mount Fuji or Mount St. Helens.
• Geological Setting – Part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt.
• Lies above a subduction zone, where the Cocos Plate subducts beneath the North American Plate.
• A stratovolcano with a crater lake formed after the 1982 eruption.
• History – One of Mexico’s deadliest volcanoes. Its 1982 eruption killed over 2,000 people and buried towns under pyroclastic flows and ash.
• It caused a global temperature dip from sulfur dioxide emissions and reshaped the summit, forming the current crater and lake.
• It has remained mostly dormant but geochemically active since then.
• Activity – Alert Level – Yellow alert, phase 2 (abnormal but non-eruptive activity)
• Crater Lake Observations – High temperature (up to 118°C), with chemical changes (sulfates, chloride, H₂S and CO₂).
• Seismic & Underground Activity – Shallow, low-magnitude quakes indicate an active hydrothermal system beneath the crater, with the potential for sudden phreatic (steam-driven) explosions.
• Hazards – Possible phreatic (steam-driven) explosions.
• Toxic gas emissions (hydrogen sulfide H₂S and carbon dioxide CO₂).
• Localized hydrothermal hazards around the crater lake.
• Monitoring – The National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) is deploying drones and remote sensing platforms for heat and gas monitoring.
• Limited real-time seismic, gas, and thermal surveillance.
• Permanent danger zone – The crater and immediate surroundings remain restricted due to residual hazards from the 1982 eruption and ongoing hydrothermal activity.

Reference

Indian Defence Review | Chichón Volcano