Strait Of Hormuz – Central to Global Energy Security

Why in News?

Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps began a new round of military exercises in the Strait of Hormuz, the drills, launched on the eve of talks with the United States, were aimed at preparing for “potential security and military threats” in the strait.

Where is the location of the Strait of Hormuz?

• Location – It is a tiny strip of water between Oman and the UAE on one side and Iran on the other.
• It is in the territorial waters of Iran and Oman.
• Width – It is 33 km wide at its narrowest point, with the designated shipping lane just 3 km wide in either direction, separated by a buffer zone.
• Shipping lanes – It flows into the Gulf of Oman, where ships can then travel to the rest of the world.
• Connectivity – It links the Persian Gulf in the north with the Gulf of Oman to the south, and the Arabian Sea beyond.
• Strategic Importance – Despite its modesty in width, the strait is one of the most strategically important waterways in the world.

Why the Strait of Hormuz remains central to global energy security?

• Energy flows – Every day, enormous volumes of tankers carrying crude oil, petroleum products and liquefied natural gas (LNG) pass through it.
• Share of global consumption – According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), roughly 17–20 million barrels of oil and petroleum liquids transit the strait daily, which is close to 20% of global petroleum consumption.
• OPEC exports – Members of OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries), which are Saudi Arabia, Iran, the UAE, Kuwait and Iraq, export most of their crude via the strait, mainly to Asia.
• Qatar’s LNG – Qatar, one of the world’s largest LNG exporters, also sends most of its gas exports through this route.
• Impact of disruption – The EIA classifies Hormuz as the world’s most important oil chokepoint, where even temporary disruption can have far-reaching consequences, including substantial supply delay and a sharp increase in energy prices.

What is the strategic importance of the region with regards to Iran?

• Iran’s leverage – The geographical location of the strait gives Iran considerable leverage in the region.
• Its coastline runs along the entire northern side of the passage, and the narrowness of the shipping lanes means that the commercial vessels that pass through it must come in close contact with the Iranian waters.
• Recurring hotspot – This has turned the Hormuz into a recurring hotspot during periods of regional tensions in the past.
• Historical Flashpoints – During the Iran-Iraq war of the 1980, both countries targeted oil tankers and commercial vessels in what came to be known as the “tanker war”.
• Naval mines were deployed, and shipping lanes were temporarily disrupted.
• Shipping lanes disrupted; U.S. and allies escorted tankers to secure oil flow.
• Repeated threats – Since then, Iran has repeatedly threatened to close the strait during periods of heightened regional tensions and confrontations with the U.S. and its allies, but never executed a full blockade.
• Recent restraint – Even during last year’s 12‑day war with Israel, despite U.S. strikes on Iranian nuclear and military facilities, Tehran did not shut the strait.
• Strategic Reality – Blocking the Strait would pressure oil‑importing countries, but it would also hurt Iran’s own exports and risk triggering an international military response.

What is the global economic impact caused by the disturbances in this region?

• Critical chokepoint – Both strategically and geographically, the Strait of Hormuz is one of the most important oil chokepoints in the world.
• The stability of this narrow maritime corridor underpins global oil flows and the international economy.
• Insurance & freight costs – Even a partial disruption, whether due to military escalation, mines, missile threats, or tanker seizures, can drive up shipping insurance costs and freight rates.
• Ripple effect – It could also increase the price of goods and services globally.
• Major importers hit – It hit some of the biggest economies, including China, Japan and India, which are some of the biggest importers of crude oil through the strait.
• Oil Market reaction – Global oil markets react immediately to any sign of instability in the strait, which often leads to an increase in oil prices merely on expectations.
• Impact on Asia
• Flows to Asia – Roughly 82% of crude oil and condensate that passes through the strait went to countries in Asia in 2022.
• Top importers – China, India, Japan and South Korea together accounted for roughly two-thirds of these flows.
• Therefore, a sustained disruption would hit major Asian economies particularly hard.
• Impact on India
• Net importer – India is a net importer of crude oil; more than 40% of its oil supplies come from Gulf countries that use the Strait of Hormuz for these oil exports.
• Immediate consequence – Any minor disruption in this region would likely increase global crude prices, in turn leading to an increase in the prices of domestic petrol, diesel and LPG.
• India’s vulnerability – As a country heavily dependent on energy imports, any instability here translates into inflationary pressures and economic strain.

What are the few alternatives?

• Limited Alternatives – Saudi Arabia operates the East-West pipeline to the Red Sea & UAE has a pipeline to the port of Fujairah outside the Gulf.
• Capacity issue – However, these routes do not have the capacity to fully replace the volumes that transit the strait daily.
• For most exporters in the Persian Gulf, the strait continues to be the main gateway to international markets.
• Vulnerability – Even a minor disturbance in the Strait of Hormuz will have a profound impact on big economies around the world.

What are the latest tensions?

• Iran’s drills – The recent Iranian military exercises and naval drills were conducted in the midst of heightened regional tensions and the presence of U.S. naval assets in the area.
• Interpretation – Military drills in the strait, or in the vicinity, are often interpreted as signals, or threats, demonstrating the capability of Iran during diplomatic stand-offs.
• Economic Sensitivity – While a full closure is still unlikely because of the economic and military risks involved, the simple possibility of disruption is enough to increase global oil prices.
• Global Vulnerability – In a complex and interwoven international economy, which is already strained by various geopolitical conflicts and fragile supply chains, the Strait of Hormuz represents a pivotal vulnerability.

What lies ahead?

• The strategic relevance and importance of the Strait of Hormuz are immense, and its stability is vital for global economic strength and security.
• For India and other major economies around, what happens in this narrow oil chokepoint is not distant geopolitics but a direct determinant of energy costs, inflation, and economic stability.

Reference

The Hindu | Why the Strait of Hormuz remains central to global energy security?

Rajya Sabha Elections

Why in News?

Recently, the Election Commission of India issued a notification for elections to 37 Rajya Sabha seats, with polling scheduled on 16 March 2026, as the terms of several MPs are expiring in April.

• Parliament of India – Consists of three parts, namely the President, the Council of States and the House of the People.
• Rajya Sabha - It is the upper house which represents the States and Union Territories of the Indian Union.
• Permanent house - It is a continuing chamber and not subject to dissolution.
• Fourth Schedule - It is related to the allocation of seats in the Council of States or Rajya Sabha.
• History of Rajya Sabha – Traced to Montague-Chelmsford Report (1918) and the Council of State created under the Government of India Act, 1919 (1921).
• Constituted on 3 April 1952 with the first sitting on 13 May 1952.
• First Chairman – Dr S. Radhakrishnan.
• Composition – Article 80 deals with the composition of the Rajya Sabha with a maximum strength of 250 members.
• Current strength - 245 members representing States and Union Territories.

• Nominated members - Out of the total, 12 are directly nominated by the President, from the fields of art, literature, sports, science, etc (Article 80(3)).
• UT representation - Out of 8 UTs, Delhi, Puducherry and Jammu and Kashmir have representation in the Rajya Sabha.
• Tenure (Article 83) - Members serve a 6-year term, with one-third of the members retiring every two years to ensure continuity.
• Qualifications – Citizen of India, Minimum age of 30 years, and other qualifications as prescribed by Parliament.

• Elections

• Indirect election - As per Article 80 (4), the members of the Rajya Sabha are elected indirectly by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of each State and the respective Union Territories.
• Proportional Representation System - Each MLA’s vote is counted only once (Single Transferable Vote), with members casting their votes in order of preference.
• Preference Voting- MLAs submit a list of candidates based on their preferences. The first preference carries the most weight.
• Quota requirement- A candidate must secure a certain number of votes (the “quota”) to be elected.
• Elimination process- If no candidate reaches the quota, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. Their votes are redistributed based on subsequent preferences.
• By-elections - In case of a member’s death, disqualification, or resignation, by-elections are held to fill the vacant seat.

• Powers 

• Equal Powers with Lok Sabha – Equal legislative powers, including Constitution Amendment Bills.
  • No joint sitting for constitutional amendment deadlocks.
• Special Powers (Article 249) – Can authorise Parliament to legislate on State List subjects by a 2/3rd majority resolution (valid for 1 year and extendable).
• Creation of All India Services (Article 312) – Can recommend creation of All India Services common to the Union & States.
• Role in Emergencies – Must approve proclamations under Articles 352, 356, 360.
• If the Lok Sabha is dissolved, the Rajya Sabha's approval keeps the proclamation valid.

Reference

IE | Rajya Sabha Elections

Rare-Earth Permanent Magnets (REPMs)

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Mines Minister announced that India will begin rare-earth magnet production in 2026 and set up critical mineral parks in four states.

• Rare-earth permanent magnets – They are among the strongest variants of magnets.
• Made from rare-earth element alloys with high magnetic strength and energy density.
  • Not geologically rare but difficult to mine and process, making them strategically important.
• Key Features
• High Magnetic Strength – Ability to strongly attract or repel other magnets.
• Due to the unpaired electrons in rare earth elements, producing strong magnetic fields.
• High Coercivity – Resistance to demagnetization which is caused by high magnetocrystalline anisotropy (strong atomic alignment).
• High Energy Product – Indicates magnetic energy stored in the magnet, as they are compact but powerful magnets.
• Types 

Manufacturing Process of REPMs

• Mining and Refining – Rare earth minerals like bastnäsite, monazite and xenotime are mined and processed through crushing, grinding and chemical leaching to extract rare earth elements.
• Alloying – Rare earth elements such as neodymium, praseodymium and dysprosium are mixed with iron, boron and cobalt to form magnetic alloys.
• Sintering – The alloyed material is heated without melting to strengthen the magnet and improve corrosion resistance.
• Magnetising – The magnets are exposed to a strong magnetic field to align magnetic domains and make them permanently magnetic.

The critical mineral processing parks will be set up in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat.

• Applications – EV and industrial motors, generators, wind turbines, aerospace and military systems, medical devices (MRI, NMR).
• In electronics (hard disks, speakers, headphones), robotics, cryogenic refrigeration, and specialised high-field magnetic applications.
• Significance – Rare earth magnets boost India’s autonomy by powering EVs, defence, and clean energy, while supporting Make in India, Atmanirbhar Bharat, and a circular economy through recycling.

Quick Fact

References

1. TH | Rare-Earth Permanent Magnet
2. Sathee | Ministry of Education | Physics Rare Earth Magnets

Naneghat Caves

Why in News?

Recently, Pune Police booked a man for illegal construction near the historic Naneghat Caves, under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act.

• Location – Naneghat is a mountain pass in the Western Ghats, about 20 km from Junnar in Pune district, Maharashtra.
  • Other sites in Junnar - Shivneri fort and Lenyadri caves
• Managed by – The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and any construction within 200 metres of the site boundary is prohibited.
• Protected under – The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958.
• Timeline – Dating back to the 1st century BCE.
• Belief – Used by Buddhist, Jain and Ajivika sects for meditation and ascetic life.
• Associated with – Satavahana dynasty.
• Construction – Rock-cut caves carved into the hillside.
• Extent – Part of Junnar’s historical sites along with Shivneri Fort and Lenyadri Caves.
• Features –
• Architecture – Rock-cut cave architecture with early Brahmi inscriptions giving insights into Satavahana rule and trade routes.
• Trade Importance – Extensively used during the Satavahana period as a trade route between Kalyan and Junnar.
  • Important corridor linking the ancient trade route connecting the Western coast to the Deccan plateau
• Archaeological Evidence – Excavations indicate trade links between Romans and Satavahanas.

Reference

IE | Naneghat Caves

Self-Reliance in Pulses Mission

Why in News?

The Union Agriculture Minister reviewed NAFED procurement operations and discussed Self-Reliance in Pulses Mission to ensure assured MSP procurement and boost domestic pulses production.

• Aim – Achieve self-reliance in pulses production and strengthen MSP procurement.
• Launched in – 2025, also known as Dalhan Aatmanirbharta Mission.
• Nodal Ministry – Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
• Objectives
• Self-Sufficiency - Increase pulses production to 350 lakh tonnes and cultivation area to 310 lakh hectares.
• MSP Assurance - Ensure 100% procurement of Tur, Urad, Masoor for four years.
• Import Reduction - Reduce dependency on imports and strengthen Atmanirbhar Bharat.
• Key Features
• Seed Support – Distribution of 88 lakh free seed kits and 126 lakh quintals of certified seeds.
• High-Yield Varieties – Promotes climate-resilient, pest-resistant, high-yield pulse varieties.
• Infrastructure – Strengthen procurement centres and post-harvest storage.
• Cluster Approach – Use cluster-based cultivation, seed hubs, and FPOs for efficiency.
• Technology – Implement SATHI Portal for seed traceability and quality monitoring.
• e-Samriddhi, developed by the National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED) to streamline the procurement process from farmer registration to final payment.
• Operational Strategy – States prepare five-year seed production plans, monitored by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) (2025–31).
• Expand pulses into rice fallows and suitable lands, promote intercropping and diversification.
• Status of Pulses Production in India – India is the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses.
• Production increased from 192.6 lakh tonnes (2013–14) to 252.38 lakh tonnes (2024–25), reflecting a growth of around 31%.
• But, Imports still 47.38 lakh tonnes (2023–24).
• Major Producing States – Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

References

1. PIB | Self-Reliance in Pulses Mission
2. PIB | India’s Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses
3. TH | Pulses Mission

Tetanus & Adult Diphtheria (Td) Vaccine

Why in News?

Recently, the Union Health Minister launched the indigenously manufactured Td vaccine in Kasauli.

• Vaccine – Tetanus & Adult Diphtheria (Td) vaccine introduced under Universal Immunisation Programme (UIP).
• Aim – Strengthening protection among adolescents and adults and reducing morbidity and mortality associated with vaccine-preventable Tetanus & Diphtheria.
• Developed by – Central Research Institute (CRI), Himachal Pradesh.
• Nodal Ministry – Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
• Features – Contains a lower concentration of diphtheria antigen (d) suitable for older children and adults.
• Coverage – India has achieved ~99% vaccine coverage.
  • UIP covers 11 vaccines against 12 diseases.
• Supply Target – 55 lakh doses to UIP by April 2026; production to scale up later.
• Beneficiaries – Around 5 crore annually, with 2.5 crore children and 2.5 crore pregnant women.
• Significance – Boosts Atmanirbhar Bharat in health & reinforces India’s role as a global vaccine hub (“pharmacy of the world”).

Replacing Tetanus Toxoid (TT) with Td

• Recommendation – WHO and the National Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation (NTAGI) recommended replacing TT with the Td vaccine for all age groups, including pregnant women.
  • 133 countries have replaced TT with the Td vaccine.
• Rationale – Waning Immunity – Diphtheria immunity declines after primary infant immunisation.
• Booster doses required for continued protection.
• Global Evidence – Eastern Europe & South America shifted to Td boosters, leading to a decline in diphtheria cases.

Reference

PIB | Tetanus & Adult Diphtheria (Td) Vaccine